UC-NRLF 


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A  JStudy  ot  Organization  and  Method 
B  c  the  Course  of  Study  in  Agriculture 
gY  in  Secondary  Schools 

By 

THEODORE  HILDRETH  EATON 


Submitted  in  partial  fulfilment  of  the  requirements 

for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  the 

Faculty  of  Philosophy,  Columbia  University 


OF 

UNJ'VBKSJTY 


Published  by 

(Teachers  College,  Columbia 
NEW  YORK  CITY 

191  - 


EXCHANGE 


A  Study  of  Organization  and  Method 

of  the  Course  of  Study  in  Agriculture 

in  Secondary  Schools 

By 
THEODORE  HILDRETH  EATON 


Submitted  in  partial  fulfilment  of  the  requirements 

for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  the 

Faculty  of  Philosophy,  Columbia  University 


Published  by 

Ccacfjers  College,  Columbia 
NEW  YORK  CITY 
1917 


Copyright,  1917,  by  THEODORE  HILDRETH  EATON 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Purpose i 

Method  of  Gathering  Data 3 

Classification 4 

Selection  of  Schools 5 

Surroundings 5 

Description  of  Schools 6 

Aims      42 

Equipment 44 

Teachers 48 

Salaries '. 52 

Enrolment 54 

Age  of  Pupils 55 

Entrance  Requirements 56 

Units  of  Agriculture  Offered  in  High  Schools 57 

Course  of  Study — Academic  Subjects 59 

Agricultural  Subjects      69 

Arrangement  of  Time 81 

Method 83 

Extension  Work 120 

Correlation 121 

Adjustments 123 

Discussion  of  General  Applications      126 

Appendix : 

Extent  of  the  Movement  to  Teach  Agriculture  in  Secon- 
dary Schools 136 

Exhibits  of  Lessons 173 


368572 


ORGANIZATION  AND  METHOD  IN  AGRICULTURE 
IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

PURPOSE 

The  following  study  was  undertaken  with  a  view  to  learning 
something  of  the  character  of  organization  and  method  in  the  teach- 
ing of  agriculture  in  secondary  schools.  By  organization  is  meant 
the  coordination  of  means  to  the  attainment  of  the  end  professed. 
Included  within  this  meaning  is  method,  as  referring  more  spe- 
cifically to  actual  procedure  in  the  inter-activity  of  teacher  and  pupil 
in  the  classroom,  laboratory,  shop,  and  outdoors. 

Under  these  two  heads  particular  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
study  of  the  curriculum  as  a  revealing  factor  in  the  matter  of  organi- 
zation and  to  the  activity  of  the  teacher  as  an  instructive  factor  in 
the  revelation  of  method.  But  more  or  less  controlling  modifiers  of 
organization,  such  as  qualification  of  pupils  and  of  teachers,  ade- 
quacy of  equipment,  location  of  school,  type  of  school,  and  aid  from 
the  state,  have  not  been  ignored.  Out  of  this  coordination  of  means 
the  attempt  is  made  to  evolve  those  factors  which  have  dominated 
most  conspicuously  the  organization  and  method  used  in  the  schools 
studied. 

The  point  of  view  is  taken  at  the  start  that  agriculture  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  'mode  of  life',  rather  than  as  a  mere  activity  of  pro- 
duction ;  that  agricultural  education  has  to  do  with  the  preparation 
of  youth  for  life  in  the  country  rather  than  merely  with  the  'getting 
things  done  on  farms'.  Hence  a  consideration  only  of  means  which 
have  to  do  with  successful  production  per  unit  of  land  or  of  labor  is 
not  sufficient.  In  a  study  of  the  curriculum,  heed  has  been  given  to 
t  he  provision  of  subjects  in  the  schools  for  so-called  agricultural  stu- 
dents, other  than  those  which  deal  with  the  profitable  production  of 
plants  or  animals.  Agriculture  in  the  schools  should  be  a  curriculum 
rather  than  a  course. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  not  uniformly  so  regarded.  By  the  very  nature 
of  things  emphasis  is  thrown  in  this  study  upon  features  that  have 
the  productive  aspect.  In  the  first  place,  the  limitation  of  time 
necessitated  a  concentration  upon  aspects  recognized  distinctly  as 


2       Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

'agricultural' ;  in  the  second  place,  the  content  of  the  so-called  agri- 
cultural subjects  is  marked  by  its  insistence  upon  the  economic 
phases  of  country  living,  and  this  content,  which  makes  up  the  great 
mass  of  the  published  work  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington,  of  experiment  station  'literature',  of  agricultural  col- 
lege bulletins,  and  of  text  and  reference  books,  tends  to  appropriate 
to  itself  the  designation  'agricultural' ;  in  the  third  place,  teachers 
of  agriculture  are  for  the  most  part  men  educated  in  the  scientific 
aspects  of  production  from  farms  to  such  an  extent  that,  for  instance, 
the  study  of  English,  or  civics,  under  the  heading  of  Agricultural 
Education,  would  seem  to  them  a  misfit;  and  finally,  the  stress  laid 
upon  the  'vocational'  aspect  by  laws  and  officers  regulating  the 
distribution  of  state  aid,  has  tended  distinctly  to  the  narrowing  of 
the  conception  of  agricultural  education.  Hence,  if  the  dominant 
note  of  the  study  is  struck  in  the  consideration  of  the  technical 
courses,  that  dominance  is  not  far  from  representative  of  the  atti- 
tude of  those  who  control  in  secondary  agricultural  education.  Inas- 
much as  the  economic  is  the  fundamental  characteristic  of  the  far- 
mer's life,  since  his  vocation  dominates  and  modifies  his  life  activity 
through  the  twelve  months  and  the  twenty-four  hours,  as  with  few 
other  men,  the  distortion  is  less  one  of  truth  than  of  completeness. 
Inasmuch  as  in  these  schools  are  met  most  of  the  important  prob- 
lems that  are  likely  to  meet  the  educator  who  is  faced  with  the 
construction  or  reconstruction  of  the  working  plans  for  agriculture 
in  the  secondary  schools,  the  study  will  have  served  a  useful  end  if  it 
enables  the  superintendent,  principal,  school  board  or  teachers  to 
find  an  answer  to  some  of  those  problems.  Out  of  the  experience  of 
the  schools  herein  studied  arise  more  or  less  definite  adjustments  of 
means  to  meet  particular  situations,  more  or  less  definite  evasions  of 
particular  problems.  In  the  final  chapter  a  brief  discussion  of  prin- 
ciples involved  in  making  proper  adjustment  of  various  factors  is  at- 
tempted. As  these  in  varied  aspects  appear  in  the  organization  and 
method  of  the  schools  studied,  it  is  hoped  they  may  prove  of  con- 
structive value. 


METHOD  OF  GATHERING  DATA 

The  data  used  in  the  study  were  gathered  by  personal  visits  to 
fifty  schools  in  sixteen  states  during  the  fall  and  winter  of  the  year 
1915-1916.  As  often  as  railroad  schedules  permitted,  a  whole  day 
was  given  to  each  school.  In  very  few  instances  was  the  visitor 
unable  to  arrive  at  the  school  before  or  near  the  opening  of  the  day's 
session.  In  no  case  was  the  time  spent  at  the  school  less  than  half  a 
day,  and  in  two  cases  the  time  so  spent  amounted  to  two  days.  Only 
once  were  two  schools  visited  in  a  single  day,  and  then  the  visitor 
was  in  attendance  upon  all  'agricultural'  classes  in  either  school. 
In  two  cases  schools  were  not  in  session  upon  the  arrival  of  the 
visitor,  and  in  two  the  school  day  was  given  over  wholly  to  examina- 
tion. In  the  first  instance  the  agricultural  instructor,  in  the  second 
the  principal,  gave  his  time  to  explanation  of  the  work  of  the  school 
in  agriculture  and  to  an  exhibition  of  the  school  plant  and  of  the  out- 
side work  accomplished  by  students.  In  all  cases  visits  were  re- 
ceived in  kindly  fashion.  In  very  few  cases  was  there  any  apparent 
aversion  to  answering  questions.  With  forty-five  of  the  schools 
subsequent  correspondence  has  been  used  for  verification  and  am- 
plification of  data.  All  schools  having  catalogues  or  other  printed 
matter  concerning  the  work  have  furnished  such  freely,  and  further 
information  has  been  gathered  by  correspondence  with  state  de- 
partments of  education  and  university  and  agricultural  college  de- 
partments of  education.  Personal  conferences  with  Dr.  Book,  of 
Indiana,  Professor  A.  V.  Storm,  of  the  University  of  Minnesota; 
Dr.  A.  D.  Dean,  Mr.  L.  S.  Hawkins,  and  Mr.  A.  K.  Getman,  of 
the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York ;  Dr.  R.  W.  Stimson,  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Education;  and  Mr.  H.  G.  Whitcher,  of 
the  State  Department  of  Education  in  New  Hampshire,  have 
proved  of  help.  Particular  acknowledgment  is  due  the  courtesy  of 
these  gentlemen  in  furnishing  data,  and  to  Prof.  K.  L.  Hatch,  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin;  Mr.  L.  H.  Dennis,  of  Pennsylvania; 
Prof.  F.  B.  Jenks,  of  the  University  of  Vermont,  and  President 
Andrew  M.  Soule,  of  the  Georgia  College  of  Agriculture,  for  material 
of  value. 


CLASSIFICATION 

The  schools  visited  have  been  somewhat  arbitrarily  divided  into 
three  groups  according  to  type.  The  larger  group,  A,  consists  of 
schools  which  are  in  name  and  in  fact,  or  in  fact  only,  public  high 
schools.  All  but  one  have  entrance  requirements  calling  for  the 
completion  of  Grades  VII,  VIII,  or  IX,  or  an  equivalent  prepara- 
tion ;  all  have  a  four-year  course  of  study,  all  maintain  a  length  of 
school  year  between  thirty-six  and  forty  weeks  and  call  for  from 
fourteen  and  one-half  to  sixteen  units  of  satisfactorily  completed 
work  for  graduation.  With  them,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  is 
included  the  one  so-called  'junior'  high  school  visited.  In  matters 
of  curriculum,  particularly  in  the  'academic  subjects',  there  is 
much  similarity  to  the  common  high  school.  The  sub-classes  in  this 
grouping  are : 

A-i    City  High  Schools 

A-2   Town  or  District  High  Schools 

A-3   County  High  Schools 

A-4  Approved  Academies 

A~5   Congressional  District  Schools 

A-6  Junior  High  School 

Perhaps  a  word  should  be  said  in  explanation  of  the  last  three 
terms.  An  'Approved  Academy'  is  a  familiar  institution  in  the 
New  England  states.  It  is  a  secondary  school  supported  in  part  at 
least  by  private,  often  church,  interests,  administered  by  a  private 
board  of  trustees,  but  carrying  certain  courses  of  study  approved  by 
the  state  department  of  public  instruction,  that  give  it  the  standing 
of  a  high  school  with  respect  to  tuitions,  rebates,  state  aid,  etc. 
Congressional  district  schools  are  familiar  in  the  south.  These  are 
country-life  high  schools  set  up,  maintained,  and  administered  by 
the  state.  The  'Junior  High  School'  is  a  public  school  maintaining 
a  four-year  course  of  study  above  the  sixth  grade,  administered  and 
supported  by  local  authority,  and  duly  approved  by  the  state  de- 
partment of  education. 

Group  B  includes  special  agricultural  schools  more  diverse  in 
their  organization,  but  alike  in  that  they  are  specific  institutions 
set  up  and  maintained  for  the  purpose  of  giving  instruction  in  tech- 


Surroundings  5 

nology  of  agriculture,  skill  in  agricultural  processes,  or  both,  and 
not  for  'general  education'.    The  sub-classes  are  self-explanatory: 

B-i    State  Agricultural  Schools 

B-2   County  Agricultural  Schools 

B-3    Philanthropic  Agricultural  Schools 

Group  C  includes  but  a  single  school.  This  is  a  private  prepara- 
tory school,  under  church  auspices,  independent,  with  respect  to 
support,  administration  and  approval,  of  both  local  and  state 
authority. 

SELECTION  OF  SCHOOLS 

Before  making  up  a  schedule  of  vis'ts,  letters  were  written  to  state 
superintendents,  state  agents  in  agricutural  education,  and  agri- 
cultural college  professors  of  education,  asking  for  lists  of  secondary 
schools  in  which  agriculture  is  taught  in  their  respective  states,  and 
for  a  checking  on  those  lists  of  schools  which  are  doing  representative 
work  in  that  particular.  Checking  of  schools  that  were  'good'  or 
'representative'  was  made  in  nearly  all  cases,  and  was  followed 
fairly  closely  in  making  out  the  schedule.  In  cases  of  doubt  that 
school  was  visited  in  which  it  was  known  that  the  work  had  been  for 
some  time  established. 

SyRROUNDINGS 

In  the  matter  of  rural  environment,  fourteen  of  the  thirty-nine 
schools  of  Group  A  are  in  villages  or  in  the  open  country,  six  of  the 
eleven  schools  of  Groups  B  and  C.  But  the  advantage  of  the 
special  schools  in  that  particular  is  somewhat  more  than  the  figures 
indicate.  Every  one  of  the  schools  of  Group  B  has  on  one  or  several 
sides,  surroundings  of  open  fields  and  farm  land.  On  the  other  hand, 
only  three  of  the  schools  of  Group  A  may  be  regarded  as  unfavorably 
located  with  respect  to  access  to  the  fields.  From  five  to  thirty 
minutes'  walk  will  take  students  of  the  rest  to  farms.  Perhaps,  of 
the  group,  the  most  advantageously  located  in  that  respect  are  the 
congressional  district  schools.  The  table  showing  possession  of  land 
will  throw  further  light  on  the  matter.  (See  Equipment.) 

No  distinct  correlation  between  organization  and  location  is  dis- 
cernible, except  as  possession  of  land  corresponds  with  more  open 
surroundings.  In  the  provision  of  outdoor  work  there  is  some  rela- 
tion between  the  factors,  such  provision  being  usual  in  the  special 
schools  of  the  open  country,  rare  in  the  village  or  town  high  schools. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SCHOOLS 

In  order  that  the  classification  adopted  may  be  more  clear  than 
otherwise  it  might  be,  a  brief  description  is  given  of  one  school  in 
each  of  the  sub-groups.  Though  no  single  school,  perhaps,  may  be 
selected  as  the  true  type  of  the  group  for  which  it  stands,  yet  the 
attempt  has  been  made  to  describe  schools  that  lie  between  the 
extremes.  Details  in  regard  to  classroom,  laboratory,  shop,  and 
outdoor  methods  of  teaching  have  been  reserved  for  the  section 
devoted  to  method. 

A  CITY  HIGH  SCHOOL 

This  is  a  four-year  high  school  of  thirty-six  weeks  to  the  school 
year,  requiring  for  entrance  completion  of  Grade  VIII  in  the  com- 
mon schools.  Agriculture  is  an  elective  subject  by  half  units  in  the 
first  and  second  years.  The  school  has  twenty  teachers  and  a  total 
enrolment  of  467;  girls  296,  boys  171.  Forty  pupils  have  elected 
Agriculture,  seven  girls  and  thirty-three  boys,  of  whom  eleven  are 
from  farms.  The  average  age  of  the  boys  in  Agriculture  is  sixteen 
years.  Up  to  1914  Agriculture  was  merely  a  half-unit  of  Elemen- 
tary Agriculture.  This  is  the  second  year  of  the  two-unit  plan. 

The  school  is  housed  in  a  fairly  good  modern  brick  building,  on  a 
small  lot  in  a  city  of  10,000  population.  The  surrounding  country 
is  one  of  heavy  clay  farms  underlain  with  bituminous  coal.  Most 
farmers  have  royalties  from  coal  lands  or  work  a  part  of  the  time  in 
coal  mines.  Agriculture  is  backward,  though  there  is  some  grain 
farming  and  the  common  Middlewestern  combination  of  corn  and 
hogs.  Apple  orchards  are  numerous  and  the  trees  grow  thriftily,  but 
systematic  cultivation,  spraying  and  grading  of  fruit  are  rare.  The 
community  is  prosperous  through  the  possession  of  coal  lands,  but 
largely  indifferent  to  what  is  taught  in  the  schools.  The  local  board 
of  trade  has  recently  started  a  campaign  to* boom  the  agriculture  of 
the  region  and  has  cooperated  in  agricultural  club  work  and  exhibi- 
tions with  the  extension  division  of  the  state  college  of  agriculture. 
A  number  of  the  high  school  boys  have  won  prizes  in  club  work,  but 
no  regular  cooperation  with  the  agricultural  instructor  exists. 

The  principal  is  favorable  to  the  work  in  agriculture,  if  not  enthu- 
siastic, and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  attitude  of  the  teacher.  The 


Description  of  Schools  7 

one  expresses  a  desire  to  'make  the  work  of  real  practical  value  to 
the  student';  the  other  wishes  'to  give  a  first-hand  acquaintance 
with  agriculture'  sufficient  to  determine  the  predilection  of  the  stu- 
dent for  such  a  vocation. 

The  teacher  of  agriculture  holds  the  degree  of  Ph.B.  from  a  small 
sectarian  college,  and  has  gained  what  knowledge  he  has  of  the 
technology  of  agriculture  through  reading.  He  was,  however,  born 
and  brought  up  on  a  farm.  He  has  spent  two  summers  in  the  study 
of  education  and  botany  at  a  university,  and  has  for  experience  in 
teaching,  one  year  in  the  grades,  and  six  years  as  science  teacher  in 
the  high  school.  Besides  the  ten  periods  in  teaching  in  agriculture, 
he  gives  ten  to  Botany,  and  five  to  Zoology.  His  salary  is  $900  for 
the  school  year. 

The  so-called  science  course  follows  : 


ii 


English 

5 

English 

5 

Algebra 

5 

Geometry 

5 

Latin 

5 

Latin 

5 

or 

or 

German 

5 

German 

5 

Freehand  Drawing 

Mechanical  Drawing 

2 

Soils  and  Crops         1/2] 

Zoology 

5 

Horticulture               2/2  J 

>  5 

or 

Animal  Husbandry   1/2} 

Farm  Management  2/2  J 

'  5 

III  IV 

English  5  Physics  5 

Advanced  Algebra  1/2!  History  5 

Solid  Geometry  2/2  J  5  Elective  5 

History  5  Elective  5 

Botany  5 

The  method  of  classroom  teaching  in  agriculture  is  an  exceedingly 
slavish  text-book  recitation.  One  period  of  laboratory  work  has 
been  planned  for,  but  never  given,  there  is  no  shop  work,  and  out- 
door work  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence.  During  the  recitation  the 
teacher  recommended  attendance  upon  the  local  poultry  show,  but 
did  not  offer  to  go  with  the  class.  The  class  made  a  creditable  at- 
tempt to  render  the  text  in  their  own  words,  but  exhibited  no  par- 
ticular interest  in  the  subject  in  hand. 


8       Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

No  adjustment  of  hours  is  made  to  meet  the  needs  in  agriculture, 
no  attention  is  paid  to  season,  and  none  to  local  needs,  unless  it 
appear  in  the  injection  of  horticulture,  which  deals  wholly  with 
fruit  growing,  because  gardening  has  been  given  in  the  grades. 
Some  correlation  is  said  to  be  made  with  agriculture  in  the  botany 
classes,  but  the  work  witnessed  in  that  subject  was  fully  as  stilted  as 
the  work  in  agriculture. 

A  TOWN  HIGH  SCHOOL,  STATE  AIDED 

This  is  a  four-teacher  high  school,  under  a  district  superintendent. 
It  is  located  in  a  far  from  prosperous  town  of  about  2,000  population, 
in  a  rough  and  hilly  country,  where  a  Borden's  milk  station  and  a 
large  dairy  farm,  producing  certified  milk,  are  the  chief  centers  of 
industry.  The  attitude  of  the  community  and  of  the  supervising 
officer  is  reported  favorable  to  the  work  in  agriculture,  chiefly  be- 
cause it  brings  a  substantial  state  aid  to  the  school. 

The  total  enrolment  is  fifty-four.  In  agriculture  are  ten  girls  and 
eleven  boys.  Eight  of  the  boys  are  from  farms.  The  work  in  agri- 
culture is  in  its  second  year.  Entrance  requirements  are  an  age  of 
fourteen  years  or  completion  of  Grade  VIII  in  the  elementary 
schools.  No  students  have  been  admitted,  however,  on  the  age  basis. 

The  teacher  of  agriculture  is  a  graduate  of  the  state  college  of  agri- 
culture, without  pedagogical  training,  and  with  one  year  of  experi- 
ence in  the  teaching  of  high-school  agriculture.  He  was  brought  up 
on  a  successful  dairy  farm,  and  has  had  a  considerable  experience  in 
the  handling  of  cattle.  His  attitude  toward  the  work  is  one  of  sober 
enthusiasm.  In  agreement  with  the  principal,  he  accepts  the  voca- 
tional aim  in  his  work,  but  hardly  looks  to  the  turning  out  of  ready- 
made  farmers.  In  the  school  he  has  no  other  classes  than  those  in 
agriculture.  His  salary  is  $1,100,  with  $200  additional  for  supervision 
through  the  summer  of  required  home  projects. 

The  class  period  is  forty  minutes,  daily  periods  for  each  class  in 
agriculture  being  double.  In  fall  and  spring  three  double  periods 
per  week  are  assigned  to  outdoor  work  for  each  class.  As  the  weather 
grows  colder,  shop  work  is  substituted  for  outdoor  work  in  two  of 
these  double  periods,  and  the  other  is  given  over  to  classwork.  All 
agricultural  classes  are  taught  in  the  forenoon,  and  afternoons  are 
given  to  extension  and  home  project  work.  The  teacher  reports  that 
this  half-day  arrangement  of  his  time  is  looked  upon  unfavorably  by 
other  teachers  and  townspeople.  They  feel  that  he  is  underworked 


Description  of  Schools  9 

and  overpaid,  when  he  is  absent  from  the  schoolhouse  during  the 
afternoon  session.  Alternation  of  years  is  not  yet  necessary,  but 
will  come  in  with  the  third  year. 

The  curriculum  outlined  for  agricultural  students  is  that  suggested 
and  approved  by  the  State  Department  of  Education. 


GRADE  IX 

English  5 

Algebra  5 

Biology  5 

Farm  Shop    and    Poul- 
try 


10 


GRADE  X 

English  5 

Geometry  •  5 

Ancient  History        .          5 
Soils  and  Fertilizers  and  1 
Farm  Crops  I 


10 


GRADE  XI 

English 
Physics 
German 
Fruit  Growing 
Animal  Husbandry  and  \  10 
Dairying 


GRADE  XII 


5 

English                                  5 

5 

Chemistry                            5 

5 

or 

German                                5 

10 

United  States  History 

and  Civics 

5 

Farm  Management  and 

Agricultural  Engineer- 

10 

ing 

In  order  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  state  with  respect  to  en- 
rolment in  agriculture  for  state  aid,  girls  were  urged  into  the  classes 
at  the  start.  In  the  second  year's  class  there  are  ten  girls  and  one 
boy.  To  meet  this  situation  the  teacher  has  been  sane  enough  to 
depart  from  the  required  content  and  has  made  the  work  a  study  of 
fruits,  vegetables,  and  flowers  for  the  home.  The  establishment  of  a 
home  economics  department  in  the  coming  year  is  expected  to 
remove  most  girls  from  agricultural  classes. 

No  regular  text-books  are  used  in  the  class  work  in  agriculture. 
Procedure  is  by  topic  assignment,  in  part  general,  in  part  to  indi- 
viduals. Reference  books  and  bulletins  are  both  freely  used.  Upon 
the  generally  assigned  readings  recitation  is  made  in  answer  to  pre- 
pared questions  by  the  teacher.  Upon  the  individual  assignments 
students  report  to  the  class  for  criticism.  With  the  completion  of 
every  large  topic  examination  is  held,  and  the  slate  wiped.  Such  ex- 
amination was  in  process  on  the  day  of  visit.  The  topic  studied  was 
poultry  house  construction  with  a  view  to  preparation  for  the  con- 


I  o     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

struction  of  small  houses  for  home  projects  in  poultry,  which  had 
already  begun.    The  questions  follow : 

1.  Give  three  materials  used  for  a  floor  of  a  hen-house  and  give  the  chief 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each. 

2.  What  are  the  three  principal  types  of  roof?     Which  is  most  common? 
Show  different  types  by  diagram. 

3.  Discuss  the  roosts  in  a  hen-house,  answering  the  following  questions: 

a.  How  high  should  they  be? 

b.  What  would  be  the  objection  to  having  them  too  high? 

c.  How  much  roost  space  is  required  per  hen? 

d.  Should  roosts  be  all  on  the  same  level?     Why? 

e.  How  should  they  be  fastened?     Why? 

/.   How  should  they  be  arranged  in  order  to  aid  in  keeping  free  from  mites? 

4.  How  much  window  light  would  be  required  for  a  hen-house  twelve  by  eigh- 
teen feet?    On  which  side  of  the  house  would  you  have  the  windows?    Should 
they  be  so  they  can  be  opened?    Should  they  be  longitudinal  or  vertical  in  posi- 
tion?    Why? 

5.  Give  five  different  systems  of  ventilation  and  give  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  each? 

6.  Draw  a  floor  plan  of  a  house  to  hold  100  hens.    Show  the  positions  of  the 
doors  and  windows,  roosts  and  nests. 

Only  one  boy  completed  the  answers  to  all  questions  in  the  eighty 
minutes,  but  all  the  rest  asked  to  be  allowed  to  come  in  after  school 
to  finish.  The  attitude  of  the  boys,  particularly  with  regard  to  the 
floor  plan  called  for,  was  one  of  serious  interest. 

In  the  second-year  class,  with  ten  girls,  the  topic  for  examination 
was  varieties  of  apples.  The  questions  follow: 

1.  Name  four  varieties  of  apples  adapted  for  keeping  late  in  the  winter. 

2.  Name  fifteen  varieties  of  apples  in  order  of  time  of  ripening. 

3.  Give  a  brief  history  of  one  variety. 

4.  Name  five  varieties  high  in  quality;   three  low  in  quality. 

5.  Give  a  list  of  six  varieties  suitable  for  a  home  orchard. 

6.  Draw  a  cross  section  of  an  apple  showing  the  different  parts. 

7.  What  are  the  four  leading  commercial  varieties? 

8-9-10.  Write  opposite  its  number  the  name  of  each  of  the  varieties  on  the 
table. 

Several  specimens  of  each  of  thirteen  varieties  were  placed 
on  the  table  for  identification  by  appearance,  feeling,  odor,  and 
taste.  The  slicing  up  and  tasting  of  the  apples  appealed  par- 
ticularly to  the  class,  which  took  the  examination  as  a  giggly 
guessing  game. 


Description  of  Schools  1 1 

As  samples  of  the  evident  attempt  of  the  teacher  to  adjust  the 
parts  of  his  work  to  the  problem  in  hand  the  following  may  be  cited. 
School  opened  in  the  season  of  fairs.  The  entering  class  judged 
poultry  at  the  fairs  at  the  same  time  that  they  studied  breeds  and 
varieties  of  poultry  in  the  classroom.  Following  the  fairs  the  boys 
selected  or  purchased  the  poultry  to  be  used  in  their  projects.  Mean- 
time the  period  for  disposal  of  old  hens  and  cockerels  came  on  to  dic- 
tate the  next  topic,  the  preparing  and  marketing  of  poultry.  The 
laboratory  work  consisted  of  killing  and  picking  and  packing  poul- 
try. Shop  work,  altogether  in  wood,  was  given  over  wholly  to  mak- 
ing equipment  for  poultry  houses. 

In  equipment  the  school  is  very  scantily  supplied.  The  school 
building  is  a  wretched  old  plaster-cracked  firetrap,  on  the  third  floor 
of  which  agriculture  has  been  given  separate  quarters  in  three  ad- 
joining rooms,  one  of  which  is  used  for  class  work  at  long  pine  tables. 
The  others  are  dumping  places.  In  spite  of  the  meagerness  of  the 
supply  of  apparatus,  the  supply  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and  cereals  for 
examination  was  unusually  creditable.  A  large  supply  of  flower  pots 
cluttered  one  room.  These  were  used  by  the  girls  for  growing  gera- 
nium and  begonia. 

Of  land  for  agricultural  purposes  the  school  spared  from  fairly 
generous  grounds  only  a  few  square  rods  for  a  hen  yard,  in  which  the 
teacher  kept  a  small  flock  of  pedigreed  layers. 

Adjustment  of  the  agricultural  course  to  local  needs  can  hardly  be 
considered  close  here.  But  the  teacher  reports  an  intention  to  em- 
phasize dairying  in  particular.  Adjustment  to  season  and  the 
supply  of  material  at  hand  is  marked.  Recognition  of  group  needs 
appears  in  the  girls'  agriculture.  And  there  is  some  glimmering  of 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  project  may  be  a  problem  rather 
than  an  exercise. 

A  COUNTY  HIGH  SCHOOL 

This  is  a  four-year  high  school,  including  Grades  VIII,  IX,  X, 
and  XI,  supported  wholly  by  a  state  allowance  of  $3,000  per  annum. 
Course,  methods,  and  texts  are  dictated  by  the  state  department 
without  regard  to  local  conditions.  Lack  of  supervision,  however, 
leaves  some  freedom  to  an  overworked  principal. 

The  faculty  consists  of  four  teachers,  including  the  principal  and  a 
practical  mechanic  for  the  teaching  of  courses  in  carpentry  and  me- 


1 2     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

chanics,  which  have  never  yet  been  given.  The  enrolment  is  140 
boys  and  girls,  all  from  the  country.  In  this,  the  third  year,  the 
growth  is  marked  as  against  ninety  in  the  first  year,  and  in  in  the 
second.  Pupils  board  in  the  town  or  attend  daily  from  their  homes. 
The  principal,  one  teacher,  and  a  number  of  pupils  are  housed 
in  unoccupied  school  rooms  of  a  hideous  but  substantial  building 
of  brick. 

The  principal  is  a  Bachelor  of  Science  of  a  state  university.  He  is 
farm  born,  and  now  owns  a  thirty-acre  farm  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
school.  He  has  had  ten  years  of  teaching  experience,  and  has  'read 
up'  in  agriculture  as  the  occasion  for  teaching  it  has  arisen.  His 
whole  day  is  given  up  to  teaching,  and  his  sixth  week-day  is  given  to 
supervision  of  rural  schools.  To  meet  this  condition  the  high  school 
is  open  on  Saturdays  and  closed  on  Mondays.  His  salary  is  $1,500 
on  a  twelve-month  basis. 

The  school  is  located  in  a  mining  town  wherein  prosperity  is  con- 
fined to  the  few.  The  town  is  utterly  raw  and  unattractive.  Hogs, 
hens,  and  wandering  mules  dispute  the  right  of  way  between  puddles 
in  the  streets.  The  surrounding  country  is  rough  and  mountainous, 
heavily  wooded  with  pitch  pine.  The  farms  are  sandy  and  poor, 
given  over  to  corn,  cotton,  and  razorback  hogs.  The  attitude  of  the 
community  is  somewhat  hostile  to  any  attempt  at  secondary  educa- 
tion. The  school  is  still  looked  upon  as  an  alien  institution. 

All  students,  boys  and  girls,  are  held  to  one  or  the  other  of  the 
courses  presented  by  the  state.  Girls  take  such  agriculture  as  is 
given,  but  for  some  reason  the  boys  have  been  exempted  from  domes- 
tic science.  They  take  manual  training  from  which  the  girls  are 
freed. 

COURSE  A  COURSE  B 


English  5  English  5 

Arithmetic  2/2  5  Arithmetic  2/2  5 

Elementary  Agriculture  \  Elementary  Agriculture  \ 

1/2  J5                          1/2  J5 

General  Science  2/2  5  Beginner's  Latin  2/2  5 

English  History  3  English  History  3 

Geometrical  Drawing  2  Geometrical  Drawing  2 

Manual  Training  2  Manual  Training  2 

Cooking  2  Cooking  2 

School  Garden  School  Garden 


Description  of  Schools 


English  5 

Algebra  5 

Horticulture  1/2  5 

(not  given) 

Botar.  5 

General  History  5 

Domestic  Science  2 

Woodworking  2 

(not  given) 

Vocational  Accounts  2 
School  Garden 


English  5 

Algebra  5 


Beginner's  Latin  5 

General  History  5 

Domestic  Science  2 

Woodworking  2 

(not  given) 

Vocational  Accounts  2 
School  Garden 


m 

English  5 

Plain  Geometry  5 

Physics  5 

Agriculture  2/2  5 

(not  given) 

Either  Animal  Husban- 
dry,   Dairy,  Poultry, 
or  Field  Crops 
Home  and  Community 

Sanitation  2 

Farm  Mechanics  2 

(not  given) 

Domestic  Arts  2 

School  Garden 


m 


English 

Plain  Geometry 

Physics 

Caesar,  Books  I-IV 


Home  and  Community 
Sanitation 


Domestic  Arts 
School  Garden 


rv 

English  5 

Solid  Geometry  1/2  5 

Algebra  2/2  5 

Chemistry  5 
American   History  and 

Civics  5 

Rural  Economics  3 

(not  given) 
School  Garden 


IV 

English  5 

Solid  Geometry  1/2  5 

Algebra  2/2  5 

Chemistry  5 
American    History   and 

Civics  5 

Cicero,  six  Orations  5 

Latin  Prose  Composition 


The  work  in  agriculture,  of  which  the  aim  is  said  to  be  'prevoca- 
tional',  is  text-book  recitation.  Several  of  the  boys  have  worked 
with  the  principal  in  growing  about  one-eighth  acre  of  cotton  on 
school  land  that  they  have  cleared  up.  All  have  worked  in  the  grad- 
ing of  an  athletic  field  that  is  nearly  ready  for  use.  Into  the  school 


1 4     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

garden,  of  which  the  faculty  is  very  proud,  boys  and  girls  have  ven- 
tured on  occasion.  The  garden  is  a  heart-shaped  enclosure  of  per- 
haps four  square  rods,  largely  in  paths,  but  given  over  in  part  to 
bulbs  and  flowers.  An  industrious  girl  might  use  two  or  three  hours 
a  week  in  the  care  of  it  during  fall  and  spring.  It  represents,  how- 
ever, what  is  accomplished  under  the  caption  'School  Garden' 
throughout  the  four  years  of  the  course  outlined.  In  the  schoolhouse 
are  several  ornamental  plants  in  pots,  which  have  suffered  from  the 
cold  weather.  These  may,  perhaps,  be  included  in  the  school  garden 
work. 

Manual  training  is  taught  in  a  shop  which  has  been  fitted  up  in 
the  basement  by  local  carpenters,  and  is  a  faithful  following  of  the 
prescribed  process  outline.  The  teacher  is  a  woman  graduate  of  a 
state  normal  school. 

Correlation  with  country  life  in  other  subjects  than  agriculture 
may  be  noted  in  the  vocational  accounts,  and  sanitation.  Other- 
wise there  seems  to  be  none. 

No  laboratory  work  is  given  in  the  sciences,  because  the  school 
has  no  equipment.  In  books  of  reference  it  is  poverty  stricken.  The 
only  reference  book  in  agriculture  is  a  United  States  year  book  of 
ancient  vintage,  which  had  never  been  used.  All  that  the  school 
possesses  is  represented  in  two  acres  of  raw  land  and  a  barely  fur- 
nished building. 

The  struggle  of  teachers  to  carry  out  the  rigid  prescription  of  the 
state  department,  in  the  midst  of  poverty  and  unfriendly  surround- 
ings is  an  example  of  missionary  spirit  worthy  of  the  highest  praise. 

A  NEW  ENGLAND  ACADEMY 

This  school  is  under  church  backing  and  is  administered  by  a 
private  board  of  trustees.  It  has  a  modest  endowment  and  some 
income  from  gifts.  It  serves  as  a  local  high  school  under  state  ap- 
proval, with  the  right  to  tuition  from  townships  served.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  pupils  are  boarders,  but  about  one-third  attend  by  the 
day.  The  school  has  boys'  and  girls'  dormitories,  a  gymnasium,  and 
a  fairly  good  frame  school  building. 

The  location  is  in  a  small  village  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  in  rough 
and  beautiful  country,  well  forested,  with  a  few  moderately  prosper- 
ous dairy  farms,  and  some  prospect  of  successful  orchard  farming. 
Already  the  school  has  an  excellent  reputation  as  a  preparatory 
school  and  the  possession  of  it  is  a  matter  of  local  pride.  The  princi- 


Description  of  Schools  1 5 

pal  stands  well  with  the  community,  and  anything  that  he  under- 
takes is  fairly  certain  of  the  endorsement  of  the  townspeople.  This 
has  been  true  of  the  work  in  agriculture,  which  is  now  in  its  fifth 
year. 

The  total  enrolment  of  the  school  is  ninety,  fifty  boys  and  forty 
girls.  For  entrance,  an  age  of  thirteen  years  and  examination  based 
on  eighth-grade  completion  are  required.  The  school  has  been  grow- 
ing slowly  during  the  past  few  years,  and  the  enrolment  in  agricul- 
ture has  somewhat  more  than  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the 
school  as  a  whole.  In  1911-1912  there  were  twelve  boys  in  agricul- 
ture comprising  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  total : 

1912-13 — 1 8  boys  in  Agriculture,  comprising  15  per  cent,  of  the  total 
1913-14 — 25  boys  in  Agriculture,  comprising  23  per  cent,  of  the  total 
1914-15 — 20  boys  in  Agriculture,  comprising  21  per  cent,  of  the  total 
1915-16 — 28  boys  in  Agriculture,  comprising  31  per  cent,  of  the  total 

Agriculture  is  housed  with  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  base- 
ment rooms  of  a  separate  building,  and  has  a  rather  scanty  labora- 
tory equipment,  consisting  of  a  soils  auger,  tubes  and  balances,  a  few 
cereal  and  fertilizer  samples,  and  a  Babcock  tester.  There  is  a 
separate  basement  shop  for  woodwork  and  blacksmithing,  in  which 
the  three  forges  smoke  so  badly  as  to  require  an  adjustment  of  the 
hours  for  work  to  a  time  when  the  schoolrooms  above  are  not  occu- 
pied. There  are  benches  and  tools  adequate  for  the  needs  of  present 
classes. 

The  school  has  thirty-five  acres  of  land,  which  can  hardly  be  re- 
garded as  a  farm.  There  is  half  an  acre  of  garden,  cared  for  during 
the  growing  season  by  hired  'help',  which  is  of  some  use  for  work  in 
agriculture,  a  small  orchard  of  apple  trees,  the  pruning  and  spraying 
of  which  is  done  by  students  in  agriculture ;  a  five-acre  plantation  of 
young  white  pines  set  out  by  students;  and  a  small  herd  of  grade 
dairy  cattle,  which  furnishes  milk  for  the  boarding  pupils.  The  herd 
has 'been  tested  by  students  and  used  for  judging  purposes. 

The  principal  is  a  Master  of  Arts  and  a  Bachelor  of  Divinity, 
who  looks  upon  agriculture  as  a  liberalizing  rather  than  a  vocational 
subject,  and  has  encouraged  boys  whose  purpose  is  not  definitely 
preparation  for  college  to  elect  that  work.  The  teacher  of  agricul- 
ture is  a  young  man,  city  born,  whose  farm  experience  has  consisted 
in  one  summer's  work  on  a  farm.  He  is  a  graduate  of  an  agricultural 
college,  has  had  a  summer's  course  in  pedagogy,  and  one  year's 
experience  as  a  high  school  teacher  of  agriculture.  With  respect  to 


1 6     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

the  aim  of  his  work,  he  is  a  little  uncertain,  but  desires  to  make  the 
course  practical,  even  if  it  does  not  turn  out  farmers.  The  shop 
teacher,  who  also  teaches  the  forestry  course,  is  farm  born,  but  has 
no  college  training.  He  is  a  practical  workman  of  the  best  type,  and 
an  enthusiastic  teacher.  Five  other  teachers  are  enrolled  in  the 
faculty,  among  them  a  teacher  of  domestic  science,  who  carries  a 
course  in  agriculture  for  girls. 

The  boys  in  agriculture  average  in  age  seventeen  years  and  two 
months;  twenty  are  from  farms,  eight  from  towns.  Their  attitude 
in  the  agricultural  classes  was  largely  one  of  indifference,  but  in  the 
active  work  of  the  shop  they  were  taking  hold  with  a  will. 

The  approved  curriculum  for  a  four-years'  course  of  thirty-seven 
weeks  per  year  is  as  follows : 

GRADE  IX  GRADE  X 

Soils  and  Crops  5  Farm  Crops  and  Animal  1 

Husbandry  j  5 

Art  2  Art  2 

English  5  English  5 

Algebra  5  Geometry  5 

Farm  Carpentry  5  Forge  Work  5 

GRADE  XI  GRADE  XII 

Dairying  \  Horticulture 

Horticulture  J  Farm  Economics  >  7 

Rural  Sociology 

English  5  English  4 

Forestry  5  United    States    History  1 

and  Civics  J  4 

Physics  6-7  Chemistry  5 

In  the  approved  curriculum  in  domestic  science  for  girls  is  a  single 
unit  of  agriculture,  in  the  first  year  consisting  of  home  gardening, 
home  decoration,  and  floriculture,  as  a  direct  adjustment  to  the 
needs  of  girls.  The  class  is  taught  by  a  woman  and  is  largely  text- 
book work.  In  fact,  the  work  in  the  agricultural  classes  is  domi- 
nantly  recitation  from  assigned  lessons  in  text-books.  The  question 
and  answer  method  used  reveals  no  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
and  allows  of  little  initiative  on  the  part  of  pupils.  With  text  open, 
and  scanning  the  pages,  the  teacher  confined  himself  to  snap  ques- 
tions, many  of  them  leading,  designed  to  show  whether  or  no  the 


Description  of  Schools  1 7 

pupils  had  read  the  assigned  lesson.  The  result  was  a  rather  unin- 
teresting confirmation  of  the  fact  that  most  of  them  had. 

The  outdoor  work  for  the  day  was  a  lesson  on  weeds,  of  which  the 
garden  furnished  an  ample  assortment.  Each  boy  was  provided 
with  a  mimeographed  outline  of  the  points  to  be  noted.  Most  of  the 
points  had  to  do  with  botanical  distinctions,  such  as  arrangement  of 
leaves  on  the  stem,  and  nature  of  inflorescence.  As  the  leaves  were 
withered  and  the  flowers  gone  to  seed,  the  notes  were  filled  in  by 
guesswork  as  the  boys  lay  at  ease  under  the  trees.  When  it  was 
found  that  only  five  weeds  were  recognized  either  by  boys  or  teacher, 
all  others  were  cast  aside  and  the  note-taking  confined  to  the 
five.  No  point  definitely  leading  to  method  of  control  of  the  weed 
entered  into  consideration  at  all,  despite  the  plan  of  the  lesson  i£ 
advance. 

In  shop  work  the  teaching  was  much  more  satisfactory.  Every- 
body was  busy  with  a  particular  project  of  his  own,  following  his 
own  working  drawings.  The  teacher  had  little  to  say.  A  few  times 
boys  came  to  him  with  questions  as  to  procedure,  which  he  answered 
carefully  either  in  words  or  by  demonstration.  At  the  end  of  the 
period  every  boy  brought  his  work  up  for  criticism,  which  was  frank 
and  fair. 

No  farm  work  is  required  or  provided,  though  the  shop  boys  have 
done  some  repair  jobs  and  construction  work,  notably,  a  concrete  re- 
taining wall  of  very  creditable  workmanship.  Home  and  school 
projects  are  prospective  only.  The  plan  is  to  provide  home  work  for 
day  pupils  and  individual  plots  for  boarders,  who  will  have  to  hire 
others  to  carry  on  their  garden  work  during  the  summer. 

The  school  hours  are  sixty  minutes  in  length,  twenty  minutes  of 
which  is  given  to  supervised  study,  if  the  teacher  is  so  disposed. 
There  are  no  double  periods  in  agricultural  courses  or  in  shop  work, 
and  the  shop  instructor  reports  himself  handicapped  by  the  arrange- 
ment. Since  the  school  receives  no  state  aid,  it  is  felt  to  be  necessary 
for  the  agriculture  teacher  to  give  part  of  his  time  to  other  work. 
Accordingly,  he  has  charge  of  the  classes  in  physics  and  chemistry. 
In  neither  course  is  any  attempt  at  correlation  made  with  the  work 
in  agriculture.  The  reason  given  is  that  "the  college  entrance  re- 
quirements stand  in  the  way  of  it."  In  order  that  the  teacher  may 
have  time  for  the  additional  work  in  science,  an  alternation  of  yearly 
topics  in  agriculture  is  practised.  Thus  Freshmen,  this  year,  take 
soils  and  crops  along  with  Sophomores;  Juniors  and  Seniors  take 


1 8     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

dairying  and  horticulture  together.     Next  year  the  work  of  the 
second  and  fourth  years  in  agriculture  will  be  given. 
In  this  school  the  more  notable  adjustments  appear: 

1.  As  to  local  needs,  in  the  introduction  of  forestry  as  a  full  unit 
and  the  emphasis  upon  dairying  in  the  animal  husbandry  course. 

2.  As  to  needs  in  the  line  of  progress,  the  emphasis  upon  fruit 
growing  in  horticulture. 

3.  As  to  seasonal  demands,  the  provision  of  a  spring  to  fall  se- 
quence for  the  completed  cycle  of  growth  in  crops  and  horticulture. 

4.  As  to  group  distinctions  of  pupils,  in  the  provision  of  a  special 
unit  of  agriculture  for  girls. 

A  CONGRESSIONAL  DISTRICT  SCHOOL 

A  school  established  by  the  state  in  one  of  the  congressional  dis- 
tricts of  a  Southern  state,  receiving  $10,000  per  year  from  the  state 
for  maintenance.  Administratively,  the  school  is  a  department  of 
the  agricultural  college.  The  curriculum  is  uniform  with  that  of  the 
other  congressional  district  schools  and  is  laid  down  in  annual  con- 
ferences of  the  school  principals  with  the  authorities  of  the  agricul- 
tural college  and  the  professor  of  secondary  education  at  the  uni- 
versity. Occasional  visits  by  the  latter  officer  constitute  the  super- 
vision. 

The  school  is  located  in  the  open  country,  three  miles  from  the 
nearest  village  and  railroad  station.  The  surrounding  country  is 
rough  or  rolling,  much  of  it  in  woods.  The  soil  is  rather  light  and 
poor  and  the  farming  backward.  Cotton,  corn,  and  hogs  are  the 
chief  products,  but  there  is  some  peach  orcharding.  After  eight 
years  of  growth  the  school  has  succeeded  in  changing  the  attitude  of 
local  hostility  to  one  of  tolerance  that  bids  fair  to  become  friendly. 

The  school  owns  and  operates  a  farm  of  250  acres,  100  acres  in 
crops,  cotton,  and  forage,  and  fifty  in  pasture.  The  state  of  tillage  is 
good  and  the  crops  fair.  A  small  orchard  and  demonstration  plots 
are  located  near  the  main  buildings.  Farm  buildings  are  decrepit 
and  badly  arranged,  but  a  new  concrete  silo  marks  the  start  for  a 
new  set  of  better  ones.  A  large  gasoline  engine  in  a  concrete  pump 
house  delivers  water  from  a  'run'  to  the  school  buildings.  Another 
furnishes  power  for  sawing  wood,  a  dynamo,  and  for  the  small  shop. 
Of  horse  machinery  there  is  a  reasonable  supply  in  fair  condition. 
The  poultry  plant  has  an  incubator  and  brooders. 


Description  of  Schools  19 

An  excellent  flock  of  Rhode  Island  Red  hens  marks  the  most  pro- 
gressive selection  in  live  stock.  A  herd  of  rather  inferior  grade 
Jerseys  supplies  milk.  A  score  of  hogs  and  two  teams  of  mules 
complete  the  quota  of  live  stock. 

The  school  buildings  are  of  brick.  A  main  recitation  building, 
dining  hall,  and  girls'  dormitory  built  on  the  characteristic  plan  of 
these  schools,  under  contract,  show  the  characteristic  bad  work- 
manship noted  in  other  schools.  The  roof  leaks,  the  walls  are  damp, 
and  the  plaster  is  falling  away,  the  floors  are  uneven.  In  contrast  is 
the  boys'  dormitory,  constructed  by  student  labor  after  a  fire  had 
destroyed  the  original  building.  Though  most  of  the  brick  used  in 
the  walls  is  that  left  from  the  fire,  even  the  appearance  of  the  build- 
ing is  more  substantial  than  that  of  the  others.  The  building  will 
be  usable  when  the  others  have  fallen  to  ruin. 

In  this  school  the  handicap  of  debt  is  one  that  is  frequent  under 
the  present  system.  New  construction,  equipment,  and  repairs, 
must  be  undertaken  from  the  maintenance  allowance.  Bad  original 
construction,  for  the  school  is  in  the  eighth  year  only,  has  entailed  a 
heavy  burden  for  repairs.  Under  a  new  law  some  relief  is  looked 
for.  Division  among  the  schools  of  inspection  fees  on  fertilizers  and 
agricultural  products  is  expected  to  bring  the  annual  income  from  the 
state  to  $15,000. 

Eight  teachers,  including  the  principal,  make  up  the  faculty.  The 
enrolment  is  215,  144  boys  and  seventy-one  girls.  All  boys  take 
agriculture,  and  ninety  per  cent,  of  them  are  from  farms.  Entrance 
requirements  stipulate  completion  of  Grade  VII,  but  enforcement 
is  not  strict.  Twenty-four  pupils  have  been  admitted  on  approval 
by  the  principal.  The  average  age  of  boys  is  eighteen. 

The  principal  holds  his  A.B.  from  the  state  university.  He  was 
born  and  brought  up  on  a  farm  and  has  had  ten  years  of  teaching  ex- 
perience. He  conceives  the  aim  of  his  school  to  be  preparation  for 
country  living.  He  is  vigorous  and  enthusiastic,  a  man  of  his  hands 
as  well  as  an  unusual  man  in  the  classroom.  But,  though  the  man- 
agement of  farm  as  well  as  school  is  in  his  hands,  the  teaching  of 
agriculture  is  not. 

Science  and  agriculture  are  taught  by  a  young  man  recently 
graduated  from  the  school  itself.  He  has  had  one  year  of  experience 
in  a  one-room  school  and  is  in  his  second  year  in  his  present  position. 
His  aim  is  to  relate  the  productive  science  of  agriculture  to  the  unity 
of  which  it  is  a  part.  Despite  a  farm  bringing  up  and  his  training, 


2O     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

he  is  handicapped  by  a  limited  knowledge  of  his  subject.  His  salary 
is  $540  for  the  thirty-six  weeks  of  the  school  year;  that  of  the 
principal,  $1,500  and  board  for  himself  and  family  throughout 
the  year. 

The  course  of  study  is  that  agreed  upon  at  the  conference  above 
mentioned.  No  laboratory  work,  however,  is  actually  given,  be- 
cause the  school  has  no  equipment  for  it.  Otherwise,  the  outline  is 
followed : 


English  5 

Arithmetic  5 
United  States  and  State  1 

History  J  4 

Advanced  Geography  4 

Spelling  and  Writing  I 

General  Agriculture  4 

Poultry  i 

Free  Hand  Drawing  1/2  I 

Woodwork  2/2  I 

Domestic  Arts  2 


(3) 
(3) 
(3) 


II 

English  5 

Arithmetic  2 

Algebra  3 

European  History  3 
Biology  and  Sanitation  5 
Spelling  and  Writing  I 

Breeds  2 

Dairy  I 

Stock  Judging  i 

Farm  Crops  2 

Forge  Work  i 

Domestic    Science  andl 

Art  J  3 


(3) 
(3) 


in 

English 

Algebra,  7  months 
Geometry,  2  months 
European  History 
Physics 

Teacher  Training 
Feeds  and  Feeding  1/2 
Feeds  and  Feeding  2/2 
Elementary     Horticul- 
ture 1/2 

Elementary     Horticul- 
ture 2/2 

Feeds  Lab.  (not  given) 
Horticulture  Lab.  (not 

given) 

Mechanical  Drawing 
Domestic  Science  and 
Domestic  Art 


IV 

5               English  5 

5               Geometry  3 

5               Advanced  Civics  3 

3               Chemistry  3 

3              Teacher  Training  2 

3  *           Soils  1/2  3 

3               Soils  2/2  2 

2               Fertilizers  1/2  2 

Fertilizers  2/2  3 
Elementary  Surveying        I 


(3) 
(3) 


Domestic    Science 
Domestic  Art 


andl 


(3) 
(3) 


Substituted  for  work  in  Agriculture  or  Domestic  Science. 


Description  of  Schools  2 1 

The  classroom  work  in  agriculture  is  a  rather  dull  text  recitation 
as  faithful  to  the  text  as  may  be.  In  the  crowded  room  where  some 
students  were  obliged  to  sit  on  the  floor  near  a  hot  stove,  several  fell 
asleep,  and  lost  nothing  by  it. 

The  shop  work  emphasizes  mathematics  and  drawing  and  follows 
a  process  manual.  But  the  boys  have  accomplished  a  good  deal  of 
repair  and  construction  work.  All  repairs  are  made  by  students, 
and,  in  addition  to  the  dormitory  mentioned,  they  have  erected  a 
large  concrete  silo,  a  hen  house  with  incubator  room,  the  shop  it- 
self, and  the  pumphouse.  Students  are  chosen  to  run  the  engines 
and  dynamo. 

Outdoor  work  to  the  extent  of  thirty  hours  per  month  is  required 
of  all  students.  They  have  charge  of  dormitories  and  school  build- 
ings and  of  all  work  but  cooking  in  the  dining  hall.  They  work  by 
assignment  under  supervision  on  alternate  half  days;  the  upper 
classes  on  one,  the  lower  on  the  other.  The  tasks  assigned  arise  out 
of  farm  and  school  needs,  according  to  season.  All  work  above  the 
required  thirty  hours  is  paid  for  at  from  five  to  ten  cents  an  hour, 
according  to  the  work  and  the  ability  of  the  student.  Some  students 
have  paid  all  expenses  by  means  of  such  work. 

Students  may  have  for  their  own  use  one-tenth  acre  of  land  of 
which  the  product  shall  be  theirs.  Prizes  are  offered  for  most  eco- 
nomical production  from  these  plots.  Over  summer  the  principal 
takes  care  of  the  plots,  charging  regular  rates  against  the  crop  for 
horse  and  man  labor.  Experimental  plots,  according  to  the  design 
of  the  agricultural  experiment  station,  are  under  direction  of  the 
teacher  in  agriculture  and  cared  for  by  students  in  his  classes. 

No  close  correlation  between  classroom  and  outdoor  work  occurs, 
except  as  accident  may  bring  it  about.  In  chemistry,  the  attempt  is 
made  to  tie  up  with  work  in  agriculture,  and  the  survey  work  is  di- 
rectly applied  to  the  farm,  but  in  other  particulars,  no  correlation 
with  productive  agriculture  is  apparent. 

Nine  volumes  of  reference  constitute  the  agricultural  library. 

The  earnestness  and  interest  of  students  seemed  unusual.  It  was 
less  evident  in  the  productive  agriculture  than  anywhere  else. 

JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 

This  is  a  new  school,  housed  in  an  excellent  new  building,  but 
already,  in  its  first  year,  overcrowded.  All  grades  from  I  to  XI  are 
housed  in  the  building  under  five  teachers,  two  of  whom  give  all 


22     Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

their  time  to  the  'Junior  High  School'.  In  the  state  the  elementary 
school  runs  through  nine  grades,  but  the  division  line  in  this  school 
is  drawn  at  the  close  of  grade  VI.  Above  this  grade  the  school  is 
divided  into  four  groups  at  present  made  up  as  follows:  I,  Grade 

VII  and  those  of  the  lower  standing  in  Grade  VIII ;   II,  Upper  Grade 

VIII  and  Grade  IX;    III,  Grade  X;    IV,  Grade  XL     I  and  II  are 
taught  in  a  room  together;    III  and  IV  in  another  room  on  the 
second   floor.     In   the  basement  is   a  room   neatly  equipped   for 
domestic  science  and  another  neatly,  but  scantily,  equipped  for 
agriculture. 

The  school  building  stands  in  a  large  lot  on  the  edge  of  a  small 
but  neat  and  prosperous  village.  Behind  it  rears  a  beautiful  moun- 
tain, wooded  nearly  to  the  peak.  Hay  and  dairy  farms  are  scattered 
along  the  river  and  on  the  hills,  but  lumber  is  still  the  principal  crop. 
The  school  is  a  matter  of  pride  with  the  community  and  the  intro- 
duction of  agriculture  and  domestic  science  under  state  approval  has 
been  favorably  received. 

The  principal  is  a  young  man  just  graduated  from  the  state  uni- 
versity, where  he  took  his  B.S.  from  the  agricultural  college.  In  his 
last  year  he  took  courses  in  pedagogy  and  practice  teaching  in  rural 
schools  and  in  agriculture  in  the  city  high  school.  He  is  enthusiastic 
and  earnest.  His  expressed  aim  in  agriculture  is  to  make  the  work 
'practical'.  He  teaches  mathematics,  geography,  hygiene,  and 
agriculture,  having  only  four  periods  a  week  free  from  teaching. 
His  salary  is  $900  for  the  academic  year  of  thirty-six  weeks. 

The  total  enrolment  is  148,  sixty- four  in  the  Junior  High,  thirty- 
four  girls  and  thirty  boys.  All  boys  take  agriculture,  are  from  farms, 
and  every  one  has  a  garden  and  can  milk. 

School  periods  are  thirty  minutes,  with  ten  minutes  for  supervised 
study.  Agriculture  comes  in  the  last  periods  of  the  afternoon  to 
allow  of  outdoor  work,  which  had,  in  the  first  five  weeks,  consisted 
in  one  excursion  for  the  study  of  soils  origins. 

The  curriculum  follows: 


i  ii 

Arithmetic  5  Arithmetic  5 

English  5  English  5 

Writing  and  Spelling  5  Writing  and  Spelling  5 

Geography  5  Reading  5 

Reading  5  Geography  and  Hygiene  5 


Description  of  Schools  23 

III  IV 

Algebra  5  Geometry  5 

English  5  English  5 

Writing  and  Spelling  5  Writing  and  Spelling  5 

United  States  History  5  United    States   History) 

Agriculture  5                   and  Civics  J  ** 

or  Agriculture  5 

Domestic  Science  5  or 

or  Domestic  Science  5 

Latin  5  or 

Latin  5 

One  period  a  week  in  agriculture  is  given  to  lecture  and  two 
double  periods  to  text-book  recitation  or  laboratory  demonstration 
by  the  teacher.  The  boys  at  present  are  divided  into  two  groups  of 
twenty-one  and  nine,  the  smaller  group  being  the  more  advanced. 
Both  groups  study  the  same  topics  in '  the  same  text,  but  the 
smaller  group  proceeds  more  rapidly.  There  is  no  shop  work 
and  no  projects  are  in  use  or  in  prospect.  Outdoor  work  is  at  a 
minimum. 

The  only  adjustment  noted  in  agriculture  was  the  selection  of 
variation  and  heredity  as  the  first  topic,  to  convince  pupils  that 
agriculture  is  no  'snap  course'.  Five  weeks  of  the  mountain 
autumn  season  had  been  given  to  this  effort.  The  class  appeared 
convinced.  The  interest  in  agriculture  was  very  faint  indeed.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  interest  in  arithmetic  was  very  marked,  and  the 
class  work  remarkable  for  the  spontaneity  and  initiative  of  pupils. 
No  set  text  was  used,  and  to  each  pupil  was  assigned  the  task  of  mak- 
ing a  text  of  his  own  from  materials  of  his  own  home  experience.  The 
correlation  with  farm  life  appeared  very  close.  In  no  other  subject, 
however,  appeared  any  attempt  to  teach  in  terms  of  country  life. 

The  maintenance  of  interest  in  individual  problems  even  in  this 
one  subject  promises  to  be  a  considerable  task  for  a  teacher  so  heavily 
overloaded  with  work,  but  the  start  made  is  very  encouraging. 

A  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOL 

This  is  one  of  the  special  schools  of  agriculture  and  home  eco- 
nomics provided  by  the  state,  having  an  aim  primarily  vocational. 
Support  of  the  school  is  through  legislative  appropriation. 

The  school  offers  a  regular  two-year  course,  requiring  for  entrance 
an  age  of  sixteen  years,  and  completion  of  Grade  VIII,  and  short 


24     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

winter  courses  for  which  only  the  age  requirement  is  necessary. 
Pupils  are  for  the  most  part  boarders,  who  find  rooms  and  meals  in 
the  village,  though  some  go  back  and  forth  daily  to  their  homes. 
Total  enrolment  is  193,  boys  120,  girls  seventy-three.  In  the  two- 
year  course  of  agriculture  are  fifty  boys,  thirty-four  of  whom  are 
from  farms,  in  the  short  course  twenty-six  farm  boys.  The  students 
are  somewhat  more  mature  than  those  found  in  the  high  schools,  and 
show  a  greater  variation  in  school  preparation,  as  the  following 
figures  on  age  and  preparation  make  plain : 


Preparation 

Class  1916  (boys) 

Class  1917  (boys) 

Some  college  work 

i 

0 

Completed  high  school 

10 

5 

Three  years  high  school 

6 

6 

Two  years  high  school 

18 

12 

One  year  high  school 

19 

13 

Completed  grade  VIII 

15 

13 

Completed  grade  VII 

i 

0 

Age  at  Entrance 

Class  1916  (boys) 

Class  1917  (boys) 

i  6  years 

9 

0 

17  years 

10 

7 

1  8  years 

17 

5 

19  years 

ii 

8 

20  years 

IO 

7 

21  years 

8 

10 

22  years 

2 

7 

23  years 

2 

i 

24  years 

2 

3 

25  years 

O 

i 

26  years 

I 

i 

29  years 

0 

i 

Average  age,  19.66  years. 


20.8  years. 


On  the  basis  of  preparation  boys  have  been  separated  for  instruc- 
tion into  three  groups:  A,  3  years  or  more  of  high  school;  B,  i  and  2 
years  of  high  school;  C,  completion  of  Grades  VII  or  VIII. 


Description  of  Schools  25 

The  school  is  now  in  its  sixth  year  and  shows  a  fairly  consistent 
growth  as  may  be  noted  by  the  enrolment  of  boys  in  agriculture: 

NUMBER  ENROLLED 
IN  AGRICULTURE 

IQIO-II  32 

1911-12  34 

1912-13  47 

1913-14  55 

1914-15  103 

1915-16  78 

Estimated  average  percentage  of  farm  boys  eighty-five  per  cent. 
The  length  of  the  year  is  thirty-four  weeks.  Periods  of  class 
work  are  forty  minutes,  with  double  periods  for  laboratory  and 
shop  work. 

The  faculty  consists  of  twelve  members.  The  principal  is  a 
Bachelor  of  Science,  of  a  state  university,  who  was  for  four  years 
head  of  the  department  of  agriculture  in  a  large  preparatory  school, 
and  has  been  principal  here  since  the  start.  He  was  born  in  the  city, 
but  moved  to  a  farm  when  a  baby  and  was  a  farm  boy  till  he  entered 
college.  His  salary  is  $2,700  and  house  on  a  twelve-month  basis. 

In  charge  of  academic  work  for  the  boys  is  a  Master  of  Arts,  who 
before  entering  college  was  a  mechanic  in  a  small  country  town.  He 
studied  education  during  two  years  of  college,  and  is  now  in  his  sixth 
year  as  teacher  in  this  school.  His  salary  is  $1,500  on  a  12-month 
basis. 

•  The  teacher  of  agronomy  and  farm  mechanics  holds  his  Master's 
degree  in  agriculture,  from  an  agricultural  college.  He  was  farm 
born  and  raised.  For  two  years  he  was  instructor  in  an  agricultural 
college,  and  has  taught  in  his  present  position  since  the  school 
started.  Salary  $i  ,500,  twelve  months. 

The  teacher  of  animal  husbandry  and  dairying  holds  his  M.S.  from 
an  agricultural  college.  He  was  farm  born  and  brought  up,  and  has 
served  a  year  and  a  half  as  instructor  in  an  agricultural  college.  He 
has  held  his  present  position  for  six  years.  Salary  $1,500,  twelve 
months. 

For  teaching  horticulture  and  botany  is  employed  a  young  man, 
farm  born  and  reared,  who  has  his  B.S.  from  an  agricultural  college. 
For  a  year  after  graduation  he  managed  a  large  truck  farm.  He  is  in 
his  second  year  as  teacher.  Salary  $i  ,500,  twelve  months. 


26     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

The  poultry  work  instructor  is  a  B.S.  in  agriculture,  not  farm  born, 
but  of  several  years'  experience  in  farming.  In  college  he  took  work 
in  education.  Teaching  experience,  three  years,  salary  $1,500, 
twelve  months. 

For  veterinary  science  a  practising  veterinarian  has  been  em- 
ployed on  a  part  time  basis  since  the  school  started.  Stipend, 
$1,000. 

The  instructor  in  chemistry,  English,  and  athletics  is  a  city-born 
youth,  holding  his  B.S.,  not  in  agriculture.  He  has  taught  here  for 
four  years.  Salary  $1,100,  twelve  months. 

In  shop  work  a  practical  mechanic  has  been  employed  since  the 
school  started.  Salary  $1,000,  twelve  months. 

In  agronomy  and  horticulture  a  graduate  of  the  school  acts  as 
assistant  at  a  salary  of  $900. 

The  regular  course,  which  is  differentiated  into  special  lines  in  the 
second  year,  is  outlined  as  follows: 

JUNIOR  YEAR 


Fall  Term 

Spring  Term 

English 

3 

English 

3 

Farm  Arithmetic 

3 

Bookkeeping 

2 

Botany 

4 

Poultry 

2 

Chemistry 

3 

Chemistry 

3 

Physiology 

3 

Breeds 

2 

Soils  and  Manuring 

4 

Farm  Crops 

3 

Stock  Judging 

i 

Stock  Judging 

i 

Shop 

2 

Shop 

2 

Drawing 

I 

Drawing 

I 

Elementary  Horticulture 

2 

Dairying 

2 

SENIOR   YEAR 

Fall  Term 
Required  of  all  Courses 


English                          3 

United  States  His-  ) 
tory  and  Civics  / 

Soil  Fertility                  2 

Description  of  Schools 


SENIOR    YEAR 

Fall  Term 


Course  in  General 
Agriculture 

Course  in  Animal 
Husbandry  and 
Dairying 

Course  in 
Poultry 

Course  in 
Horticulture 

Stock  Feeding       3 

Stock  Feeding    3 

Poultry    Man- 

Fruit Growing        4 

Agricultural  En- 

Dairy Products  4 

agement           3 

Insect  Pests            2 

gineering            2 

Stock  Judging     I 

Mar  ket  ing 

Floriculture             2 

Farm  Crops           2 

Veterinary  Sci- 

Poultry           2 

Elective                   5 

Forging  and  Re- 

ence                  2 

Dairying  or 

pairs                    2 

Elective               3 

Fruit  Grow- 

Drawing                I 

ing                   3 

Elective                  3 

Elective               5 

Spring  Term 
Required  of  all  courses 


English                   3 

United  States  History  and  Civics       3 

Farm  Management  3 

Course  in  General 
Agriculture 

Course  in  Animal 
Husbandry  and 
Dairying 

Course  in 
Poultry 

Course  in 
Horticulture 

Soil  Fertility         2 
Animal  Manage- 
ment                  3 
Farm  Machinery  2 
Shop                       2 
Elective                 3 

Animal     Man- 
agement          3 
The  Horse           I 
Dairy  Products  2 
Stock  Judging     i 
Veterinary  Sci- 
ence                  2 
Elective               3 

Poultry    Man- 
agement          3 
Poultry    Prob- 
lems                 I 
Incubation  and 
Brooding         2 
Dairy  Products 
or  Orchard 
Practice           2 
Elective               4 

Orchard  Practice    2 
Plant  Diseases        2 
Sprays    and 
Spraying              2 
Market  Garden- 
ing                         2 
Elective                   4 

Classroom  work  savors  in  method  of  the  agricultural  college.  Lec- 
tures predominate,  but  text-book  recitation  and  discussion  of  topics 
form  a  part  of  the  work.  In  one  class  visited  the  lecture  was  a  virtual 
dictation  from  typewritten  outlines.  Students  were  occupied 
mostly  with  the  business  of  trying  to  keep  up  with  the  lecturer.  At 
the  end  of  the  period  the  instructor  announced  that  the  contents  of 


28     Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

the  lecture  were  to  be  found  in  a  state  experiment  station  bulletin, 
which  might  be  had  for  the  asking.  As  a  drill  in  writing  at  top  speed 
the  lecture  was  a  success.  Yet  this  lecture,  like  the  others  heard, 
showed  an  excellent  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  a 
definite  attempt  at  application  to  concrete  cases  of  established  prin- 
ciples of  control. 

The  laboratory  work,  as  seen  in  the  soils  class,  was  a  performance 
of  experiments,  individually,  in  accordance  with  a  printed  manual  of 
directions.  The  instructor  moved  quietly  among  the  boys,  giving 
directions  as  to  what  should  be  observed  and  noted  in  the  record 
books.  The  dairy  laboratory  class  was  at  work  pasteurizing  milk, 
testing  samples,  and  churning  butter.  Though  the  laboratory  was 
well  equipped,  the  class  was  too  large  for  effective  work.  Six  boys 
kept  busy  at  the  assignments  while  the  other  twenty-six  stood  round 
waiting  for  the  period  to  expire. 

Of  farm  work  no  regular  requirement  is  made.  Outside  work  is  in 
charge  of  the  instructor  whose  particular  subject  is  involved.  In 
horticulture  the  attempt  at  tying  up  the  outdoor  work  with  the  in- 
door class  work  was  marked.  For  instance,  while  the  class  lecture 
dealt  with  propagation  by  cuttings,  boys  were  assigned  to  starting  of 
cuttings  in  the  greenhouse. 

No  regular  distinction  is  made  in  outdoor  work  between  city  and 
farm  boys,  but  the  principal  has  given  directions  that  writh  new 
students  tasks  involving  primary  skills,  such  as  harnessing  and  milk- 
ing, shall  be  performed  by  city  boys,  whereas  weighing  and  mixing 
of  rations,  preparation  of  sprays,  and  like  work  not  performed  by 
boys  on  ordinary  farms  shall  be  given  first  to  country  lads.  It  is  his 
desire  that  students  shall  be  given  opportunity  at  the  school  to  ac- 
quire those  skills  which  they  are  unlikely  to  learn  on  the  home  farm. 
Some  definite  grouping  and  rotation  in  processes  through  regularly 
required  farm  work  seems  desirable  to  this  end.  Some  observation 
work  is  done  on  neighboring  farms,  but  most  of  the  practice  is  on  the 
school  farm. 

Shop  work  is  by  process  sequence  with  little  or  no  attention  to  the 
useful  individual  project. 

Correlation  between  agricultural  and  other  subjects  occurs  in 
arithmetic,  botany,  drawing,  and  English. 

Recurrent  treatment  appears  in  the  sequence  of  specialized  courses 
after  the  general  course  of  the  first  year. 

Classrooms  are  in  the  buildings  of  the  former  county  court,  but 


Description  of  Schools  29 

there  is  a  new  demonstration  building  with  a  generous  judging  pa- 
vilion, and  a  well-kept  greenhouse  for  work  in  botany  and  horticul- 
ture. The  farm  equipment  is  excellent,  without  being  over-expen- 
sive and  elaborate.  The  shop  is  large,  well-lighted,  and  amply 
equipped.  The  school  farm  is  of  200  acres  of  good  land,  rolling,  and 
mostly  in  crops.  A  young  orchard  of  seven  acres,  two  acres  of 
small  fruit,  and  a  two-acre  garden  are  close  by  the  school  buildings. 
Recently  a  tract  of  175  acres  of  forest  land,  some  miles  from  the 
school,  has  been  acquired. 

In  live  stock  the  farm  is  fairly  furnished.  The  herd  consists  of 
forty-five  pure  bred  and  grade  dairy  cattle,  housed  in  an  up-to-date 
and  business-like  barn.  There  are  two  teams  of  draft  horses,  and  one 
light  team,  pure  bred  Yorkshire,  Berkshire,  and  Cheshire  hogs,  small 
flocks  of  Shropshire  and  Rambouillet  sheep,  and  an  excellent  poultry 
plant,  with  flocks  of  pure  bred  fowl.  On  the  whole,  there  is  little  on 
the  farm  that  might  not  be  maintained  on  a  good  business  farm  of 
like  size  and  soil.  A  student  might  leave  such  a  school  with  the  hope 
of  one  day  matching  its  conveniences  on  his  own  farm,  whereas  he  is 
likely  to  cast  from  his  mind  as  hopeless  the  elaborate  and  expensive 
improvements  to  be  found  at  many  of  the  colleges  of  agriculture. 
The  library  has  189  volumes  on  agriculture. 

The  community  served  is  the  state.  No  special  adjustments  to 
local  needs  appear.  Seasonal  adjustment  appears  in  the  term  se- 
quence of  subjects. 

A  COUNTY  AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOL 

The  farm  and  plant  of  this  special  vocational  school  of  Agriculture 
and  Domestic  Economy  were  provided  by  the  county  four  years  ago. 
Toward  maintenance  the  county  contributes  annually  $3,000,  the 
state  $6,000.  The  farm  of  128  acres  is  a  good  one,  and  though  man- 
aged primarily  for  demonstration  purposes  and  the  dissemination  of 
good  seed,  is  already  on  a  paying  basis,  a  very  unusual  state  of  af- 
fairs in  a  school  farm.  The  buildings  and  equipment  of  both  farm 
and  school  are  adequate  and  excellent  throughout.  Of  live  stock 
there  are  twenty-nine  grade  dairy  cattle,  five  horses,  eight  pure  bred 
sows  presented  by  farmers  in  return  for  first  choice  of  one  pig  from 
the  respective  litters,  and  a  flock  of  hens. 

The  community  is  one  of  prosperous  farms  on  strong,  rolling  land. 
General  farming  prevails,  but  there  is  a  well^developed  and  growing 
dairy  interest,  and  a  considerable  market  garden  area  in  the  neigh- 


3O     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

borhood  of  the  county's  one  city.  The  attitude  of  the  farmers  is  dis- 
tinctly favorable  to  the  school.  A  local  board  of  farmers  cooperates 
with  the  state  board  of  industrial  education  in  control  of  the  insti- 
tution. 

The  enrolment  is  eighty-five,  some  day  pupils  and  the  majority 
boarding  pupils,  who  find  their  meals  and  lodging  in  the  village. 
Twenty- three  girls  take  the  work  in  domestic  economy;  sixty- two 
boys,  all  of  whom  are  from  farms,  the  work  in  agriculture.  The  en- 
rolment includes  all  students,  those  in  the  regular  courses  and  those 
in  the  winter  courses. 

The  school  year  is  of  thirty-two  weeks ;  fall  term  nine  weeks,  win- 
ter term  fourteen  weeks,  spring  term  nine  weeks.  For  students  who 
have  completed  Grade  VIII,  or  for  mature  students  whose  evidences 
of  capacity  satisfy  the  principal,  a  two-year  course  for  the  full  year 
is  open.  Thirty- two  boys  and  young  men  and  four  girls  have  en- 
tered under  this  arrangement.  Students  of  fifteen  years  of  age  may 
enter  a  course  of  two  successive  winter  terms.  Thirty  students  are 
entered  in  this  group.  The  short  year  and  the  winter  course  are 
planned  in  recognition  of  the  fact  that  farm  boys  and  girls  cannot 
well  be  spared  from  home  during  the  growing  season — a  fact  of  con- 
siderable importance  in  a  consideration  of  special  agricultural 
schools. 

A  principal,  who  teaches,  and  five  teachers  make  up  the  school 
faculty.  The  principal  holds  a  diploma  from  a  state  normal  school 
and  the  degree  of  B.S.  in  agriculture  from  the  state  university.  He 
was  farm  born  and  raised,  and  has  had  twelve  years'  experience  as 
superintendent  and  teacher.  His  salary  is  $2,000  for  twelve  months. 
The  farm  is  in  his  charge  and  the  demonstration  and  extension  work 
that  is  a  feature  of  the  summer's  plan. 

In  addition,  for  the  agricultural  subjects,  there  is  employed  a  young 
man,  now  in  his  fourth  year  as  teacher  here,  who  holds  the  Bachelor's 
degree  in  agriculture  from  the  state  university.  At  the  university  he 
took  the  courses  in  education  offered  in  the  agricultural  college. 
He  was  born  and  brought  up  on  a  farm.  Salary  $1,250,  for  ten 
months. 

For  shop  work  the  teacher  is  a  farm  born  man  educated  at  a  tech- 
nical school,  an  efficient  workman,  and  teacher  of  four  years'  experi- 
ence. Salary  $1,350,  for  twelve  months. 

The  regular  two-year  course,  which  carries  high  school  credit  for 
two  years,  and  the  winter  course  follow: 


Description  of  Schools 


TWO-YEAR  AGRICULTURAL  COURSE 
JUNIOR  YEAR 


Fall  Term 

Winter  Term 

Spring  Term 

Carpentry 

4 

Carpentry 

4 

Carpentry 

10 

Mechanical  Drawing 

10 

Forge  Work 

6 

Types  of  Animals 

2 

Dairying 

6 

Dairy    Bacteriology 

Agronomy 

4 

Plant  Study 

3 

and  Sanitation 

4 

Horticulture 

5 

Farm  Arithmetic 

5 

Types  of  Animals 

4 

English 

5 

English 

5 

Agronomy 

3 

Bookkeeping 

5 

Chemistry 

5 

Arithmetic 

5 

Music 

3 

Music 

3 

Chemistry 

5 

English 

5 

Music 

3 

SENIOR   YEAR 


Fall  Term 

Winter  Term 

Spring  Term 

Stock  Judging 

4 

Feeding  of  Animals 

5 

Farm  Management 

5 

Carpentry 

4 

Farm  Mechanics 

5 

English 

5 

Field  Crops 

4 

Forge  Work 

6 

Farm  Mechanics 

10 

Horticulture 

3 

Carpentry 

4 

Feeds  and  Feedings 

3 

English 

5 

Soils  and  Fertilizers 

5 

Civics 

5 

Building  Plans 

5 

United  States  History 

5 

Veterinary  Science 

5 

United  States  History 

5 

English 

5 

Cooking 

4 

Music 

3 

Stock  Judging 

4 

Music 

3 

Music 

3 

• 

Elementary  agriculture  for  girls,  5 

On  this  course  the  state  university  allows  four  units  entrance 
credit. 


WINTER  S   COURSE   IN   AGRICULTURE 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Farm  Arithmetic 

5 

Feeds  and  Feeding 

5 

Carpentry 

6 

Soils  and  Fertilizers 

5 

Business  English 

5 

English 

3 

Horticulture 

5 

Farm  Crops 

3 

Animal  Husbandry 

5 

Farm  Mechanics 

1-4 

Dairy 

1-4 

Carpentry 

4 

Forge  Work 

4 

Stock  Judging 

4 

32     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

So  far  as  possible  the  winter  classes  are  held  with  the  regular 
classes,  because  of  the  heavy  schedule.  The  English  classes,  however, 
are  entirely  distinct,  the  regular  course  English  being  in  accord  with 
college  entrance  requirements,  the  short  course  adapted  to  real 
needs. 

There  is  a  weekly  special  lecture,  with  lantern  slides,  or  moving 
pictures  for  all  students. 

Classroom  work  is  about  evenly  divided  between  lectures  and 
text- book  recitation.  Laboratory  work  in  soils  and  crops  and  dairy- 
ing is  individual,  in  other  courses  mostly  demonstrations  by  the 
teacher. 

Shop  work  and  drawing  are  correlated.  Students  are  drilled  in  the 
mechanics  of  drawing  before  undertaking  working  drawings  for  use 
in  the  shop,  and  building  plans.  In  like  fashion  woodwork  and  forge 
work  begin  with  process  demonstration  and  practice  and  grow 
through  assigned  to  optional  projects,  which  are  the  property  of  stu- 
dents. In  mechanics  the  work  in  particular  is  meritorious.  Gas  en- 
gines are  very  thoroughly  mastered. 

Of  outdoor  work  none  is  required  except  at  planting  time.  For  the 
rest  the  farm  gives  opportunities  for  observation  and  practice  that 
are  pretty  largely  foregone.  In  fact,  the  farm,  which  is  at  its  best 
when  the  students  are  away,  is  looked  upon  as  an  incubus  rather  than 
an  aid  educationally.  Its  chief  purpose  is  demonstration  for  the 
farming  community. 

Of  home  projects. there  are  none  other  than  the  keeping  of  herd 
records. 

The  noteworthy  adjustments  in  this  school  are  the  conformity  of 
the  academic  subjects,  so  called,  in  the  regular  course  to  approved 
high  school  standards,  and  the  requirement  of  a  brief  course  in  cook- 
ing for  boys,  and  in  agriculture  for  girls. 

A  PHILANTHROPIC  AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOL 

This  is  a  private  philanthropic  foundation  for  Jewish  youths  of 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  now  in  its  thirteenth  year.  For  en- 
trance an  age  of  eighteen  years,  the  physique  for  farm  labor,  and  the 
approval  of  the  principal,  secured  by  personal  conference,  are  neces- 
sary. To  successful  candidates  for  entrance  all  privileges  of  the 
school  are  free,  including  board  and  rooms.  The  capacity  of  the 
school,  105,  is  regularly  filled,  and  a  long  waiting  list  makes  it  possi- 


Description  of  Schools  33 

ble  to  dismiss  students  for  any  breach  of  regulations  or  failure  in 
earnest  work. 

The  aim  of  the  school  is  to  make  of  Jewish  lads  American  farmers, 
managers,  and  foremen.  Attainment  of  skill  in  the  art  of  agriculture 
takes  precedence  over  acquirement  of  technology.  Because  of  the 
lack  of  expense  to  the  student  and  because  the  boys  are  from  the 
city,  where  no  special  summer  demand  requires  their  labor  at  home, 
the  work  continues  through  the  twelve  months  of  the  year.  The 
course  is  three  years  in  length. 

The  usual  date  of  entrance  is  March,  but  the  beginning  of  the 
spring  term  is  with  the  beginning  of  the  outdoor  work,  when  the  soil 
is  fit.  When  outdoor  work  becomes  pressing,  most  of  the  classroom 
work  is  given  over  for  the  summer  term,  which  lasts  till  the  crops  are 
harvested  and  the  silo  filled  in  the  fall,  usually  about  October  first. 
The  demands  of  farm  and  season  dominate  in  the  arrangement  of 
class  work.  Six  days  make  a  week  of  work,  and  for  farm  work  during 
the  slack  season  alternation  of  classes  outdoors  and  in  the  class- 
room is  practised.  In  the  forenoon  two  classes  are  in  the  school 
rooms  and  one  on  the  farm,  in  the  afternoon  one  indoors  and  the 
other  two  out.  Class  periods  are  forty-five  minutes  with  no  doub- 
ling. 

From  the  state  the  school  receives  $10,000  a  year,  from  Hebrew 
societies  and  gifts  about  an  equal  amount,  and  from  the  farm  an  in- 
come varying  from  $9,000  to  $14,000.  The  income  from  the  farm  in 
the  last  year  was  more  than  six  times  its  original  cost.  All  work  of 
production,  improvement,  construction,  and  repair  is  performed  by 
students  under  the  direction  of  instructors  or  foremen,  who  are 
graduates  or  selected  senior  students.  No  building  has  been  erected 
or  made  over,  no  stock  or  machinery  purchased  until  the  distinct 
need  of  it  has  been  felt  and  the  money  banked  in  advance.  That  is, 
the  farm  is  a  business  plant  developing  out  of  its  own  accumulation 
of  capital.  On  this  basis  it  is  a  remarkably  successful  farm  and  a 
decided  financial  asset  to  the  school.  Against  this,  however,  may  be 
set  the  fact  that  a  supply  of  labor,  not  paid  in  wages,  exists  beyond 
the  needs  of  a  farm  of  the  type.  The  principal  states  that  if  he  were 
to  allow  even  moderate  wages  for  much  of  the  necessarily  inefficient 
labor  of  'green'  city  boys,  it  is  doubtful  that  the  farm  would  show  a 
profit. 

Because  of  this  supply  of  labor,  however,  and  the  sane  method  of 
development,  the  four  hundred  acres  of  rolling  farmlands  are  in  a 


34     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

state  of  tilth  and  cleanly  cultivation  extraordinarily  pleasing.  Three 
hundred  and  fifty  acres  are  in  crops,  with  a  large  peach  orchard  that 
returned  a  $2,500  crop  in  the  past  year,  a  clean  and  thrifty  apple 
orchard,  vineyard,  and  extensive  gardens.  The  stock  is  represented 
by  seventy  head  of  good  grade  dairy  cattle,  twenty-seven  horses, 
twenty  to  100  swine,  according  to  the  season,  and  600  to  3,000  fowl. 
A  large  motor  truck  goes  to  Philadelphia  twice  a  week  in  the  summer 
and  once  a  week  in  winter  with  produce. 

All  outdoor  work  of  the  boys  arises  out  of  the  needs  of  the  farm 
and  school  plant.  Rotation  in  the  tasks  by  groups  is  the  regular  pro- 
ceeding. The  boy  must  master  the  elementary  skills  before  he  can 
assume  responsibility.  In  the  first  year  his  work  is  for  the  most  part 
with  hand  tools,  in  the  second  year  he  may  drive  a  team,  in  the  third 
year  he  has  his  turn  in  driving  the  truck  to  Philadelphia  and  mar- 
keting the  product.  Even  the  more  difficult  task  of  marketing 
'seconds'  is  entrusted  successfully  to  the  boys,  who  look  upon  this 
opportunity  as  a  reward  to  be  sought.  For  instance,  peaches  or 
apples  excellent  for  cooking  or  canning,  but  not  of  the  appearance 
necessary  to  command  a  price  in  Philadelphia  are  gathered  into  loads, 
and  the  loads  assigned  to  boys  singly  or  in  pairs  for  peddling  out  in 
neighboring  towns.  Only  one  requirement  is  set.  The  load  shall 
fetch  a  certain  small  sum,  $3.00  or  $5.00  as  the  case  may  be.  Any 
margin  beyond  that  belongs  to  the  salesman.  Never,  says  the  prin- 
cipal, has  one  returned  disconsolate. 

Thus  the  outside  work  of  the  school,  except  as  it  deals  with 
excess  of  labor  at  a  given  task,  comes  to  correspond  very  closely 
with  the  work  of  a  real  farm.  The  school  is  well  designated  a 
'farm  school'. 

To  accord  with  the  farm,  the  school  equipment  and  buildings  are 
plain  and  serviceable.  Except  for  dairying,  the  laboratory  equip- 
ment is  small,  and  the  shop  is  one  designed  to  meet  farm  needs  rather 
than  class  purposes.  An  excellent  greenhouse  provides  not  only 
work  for  students  in  horticulture,  but  products  for  sale.  In  the  farm 
buildings  not  only  the  labor,  but  the  plans  of  students  have  been 
used.  As  an  instance  of  the  method  of  growth:  The  number  of 
young  stock  had  increased  to  a  point  beyond  the  capacity  of  the 
barns.  Senior  students  and  instructors  met  for  consultation  as  to 
whether  the  surplus  should  be  sold,  or  a  new  stable  and  lintel  erected. 
Because  of  ample  supply  of  forage  the  choice  was  for  a  building.  The 
boys  were  then  asked  to  submit  plans  for  a  suitable  building.  From 


Description  of  Schools 


35 


that  plan  held  in  conference  to  be  most  suitable  the  building  has 
been  erected. 

So  far  does  the  atmosphere  of  the  farm  predominate  that  classes 
meet  dressed  in  overalls.  But,  with  that  atmosphere  there  is  a  disap- 
pointing drop  from  the  practicality  of  the  outdoors.  Text-book  reci- 
tation closely  competes  with  the  formal  lecture.  Farm  problems  no 
longer  control,  but  'the  nature  of  the  subject'.  Laboratory  work  is 
at  a  discount.  Farm  work  and  class  work  run  on  parallel  tracks, 
and  on  different  schedule,  so  that  the  danger  of  collision  is  averted 
as  successfully  as  in  many  schools  where  the  farm  does  not  loom 
large. 

The  course  of  study  as  outlined  below  shows  adjustment  to  season, 
but  little  to  local  demand.  On  the  other  hand,  the  success  of  the 
farm  has  been  in  no  small  part  due  to  heed  to  that  demand,  from  the 
market  and  soils  angles  of  selection.  The  plan  for  recurrent  treat- 
ment and  the  use  of  physics  and  chemistry  as  subjects  preparatory 
to  the  study  of  productive  agriculture  are  fairly  obvious  features  of 
the  curriculum,  that  are  not  usual: 


Spring  Term 

Summer  Term 

Fall  Term 

Winter  Term 

General   Agri- 

General Agri- 

Farm Arith- 

Algebra                  3 

culture               5 

culture             3 

metic                3 

Physics                    3 

Arithmetic             5 

Farm    Arith- 

Physics               3 

Business  Arith- 

English                 4 

metic                2 

Business  Arith- 

metic                   3 

Botany                   3 

Physics                3 

metic                3 

Botany                     3 

Entomology          2 

Farm  Work  (42 

Botany                3 

Entomology            2 

Physiology  and 

hours) 

Entomology        2 

General    Agri- 

Hygiene             I 

General  Agri- 

culture                3 

Elementary 

culture             3 

Poultry                    3 

Physics               5 

Physiology 

Farm  Work  (31 

Practical  Dem- 

and Hygiene    I 

hours) 

onstration          2 

Farm  Work  (32 

Farm  Work  (31 

hours) 

hours) 

36     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

ii 


Spring  Term 

Summer  Term 

Fall  Term 

Winter  Term 

Geometry              3 

Surveying            3 

Dairy                    3 

Poultry   and 

Chemistry              3 

Chemistry           3 

Agricultural 

Breed  Culture     3 

Vegetable  Gar- 

Farm Work  (48 

Chemistry       3 

Organic  Chemis- 

den                    3 

hours) 

Vegetable  Gar- 

try                        3 

Entomology          2 

den                   3 

Nursery                    3 

Fungous  Dis.        2 

Agricultural 

Agricultural 

Dairy                     3 

Physics            3 

Physics                 3 

Farm  Work  (31 

Plant  Path.         3 

Fertilizers       .         3 

hours) 

Entomology         I 

Plant  Path.             4 

Pomology             3 

Farm  Work  (31 

Farm  Work  (3  1 

hours) 

hours) 

III 


Spring  Term 

Summer  Term 

Fall  Term 

Winter  Term 

Agricultural 

Veterinary 

Greenhouse 

Gree  nho  use 

Geology             3 

Lectures          2 

Construction   3 

Management       3 

Forestry                 3 

Breeding              3 

Floriculture         3 

Rural  Bacteriol- 

An. Physiology     3 

Judging                i 

Vert.  Zoology     3 

ogy                       3 

Agricultural          3 

Farm  Work  (42 

Cereals                3 

Cereals                     3 

Chemistry          3 

hours) 

Agricultural 

Agricultural 

Feeding                  3 

Literature        3 

Literature            3 

Fertilizers              3 

Agricultural 

Farm  Manage- 

Zoology 

Chemistry       3 

ment  and  Civ- 

Far m    Man-     2 

Domestic 

ics                          3 

agement  and 

Plants    and 

Farm  Work  (31 

Civics                 3 

Animals           3 

hours) 

Farm  Work  (3  1 

Farm    M  an- 

hours) 

agement  and 

Civics               3 

Farm  Work  (3  1 

hours) 

The  faculty  has  nine  members,  including  a  practicing  veterinarian 
on  part  time,  and  a  woman  teacher  from  a  high  school  who  comes  in 
for  the  English.  Entomology,  botany,  and  zoology  are  taught  by  a 
woman  graduate  of  a  state  normal  school  and  student  of  the  univer- 
sity. 


Description  of  Schools  37 

In  charge  of  the  greenhouse  and  horticultural  work  is  a  practical 
gardener  of  many  years'  experience,  trained  in  the  Kew  gardens  of 
London.  He  receives  $i  ,000  and  a  home.  The  classroom  work  is  car- 
ried on  by  a  recent  graduate  from  an  agricultural  college.  Another 
is  in  charge  of  the  poultry  classes. 

In  dairying,  an  experienced  farmer,  graduate  of  an  agricultural 
college,  is  employed  at  $1,600. 

The  teacher  in  charge  of  all  agricultural  work  shows  an  unusual 
training.  He  is  a  Master  of  Science  in  agriculture,  farm  born  and  ex- 
perienced, for  twelve  years  professor  at  an  agricultural  college,  and 
connected  for  several  years  with  a  state  experiment  station  and  the 
United  States  biological  survey.  His  salary  is  $2,000. 

The  principal,  who  receives  $2,500  and  his  home,  was  for  many 
years  president  of  a  state  college.  He  studied  agriculture,  after  grow- 
ing up  on  a  farm,  at  an  agricultural  college,  as  a  graduate  student  at 
Halle,  and  took  his  Ph.D.  from  Gottingen.  His  teaching  work  is 
in  the  chemistry  of  agriculture. 

PREPARATORY  SCHOOL 

The  single  school  listed  in  group  C  is  an  endowed  preparatory 
school,  founded  under  religious  auspices,  but  non-sectarian  in  its  en- 
rolment, in  which  most  of  the  states  of  the  Union  and  numerous  for- 
eign countries  are  represented.  The  school  year  is  divided  into  three 
terms  of  fifteen  weeks  each,  and  entrance  may  be  made  in  any  term. 
For  entrance  an  age  of  sixteen  years,  an  attested  good  character,  and 
ability  to  do  the  work,  constitute  the  requirements.  The  length  of 
the  course  is  twelve  terms,  divided  into  six  forms.  But  the  first 
three  terms  of  work  are  of  an  elementary  nature.  With  form  2-b 
begins  work  of  high  school  grade,  and  the  courses  in  agriculture.  To 
this  form  entrance  may  be  made  by  passing  an  examination  not  far 
from  equivalent  to  eighth-grade  completion,  plus  a  fairly  accurate 
acquaintance  with  the  contents  of  the  English  Bible.  Many  stu- 
dents enter  at  this  stage  in  the  course.  In  the  six  forms  are  700  boys, 
all  of  whom  are  boarders. 

Agriculture  is  an  elective  subject  by  courses.  Of  these  courses 
there  are  four:  General  Agriculture,  A,  B,  C,  as  shown  in  the  out- 
lines, Horticulture  A,  B,  C,  Animal  Husbandry,  A,  B,  C,  Dairy  A, 
B,  each  letter  representing  a  term's  work  of  five  fifty-minute  periods 
per  week.  In  the  outline,  the  sequence  of  agricultural  courses  is  such 
as  would  be  taken  by  a  student  enrolled  for  all  agricultural  work. 


38     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

Very  few  students  are  taking  all  the  courses,  and  election  results  in 
groups  heterogeneous  with  respect  to  age  and  preparation.  The  agri- 
cultural sequence  begins  with  General  Agriculture  A  in  the  fall  term. 
The  academic  subjects  are  those  recommended  to  students  by  the 
head  of  the  department  of  agriculture.  Those  marked  with  a  cross 
are  required.  In  the  agricultural  courses,  in  this,  the  twelfth  year 
since  their  installation,  are  enrolled  fifty-six  mature  students,  aver- 
aging in  age  nineteen  years,  ten  months,  forty-two  of  whom  are 
from  farms. 

The  aim  of  the  agricultural  work  is  threefold : 

1.  To  dignify  manual  labor. 

2.  To  qualify  practical  farmers  and  superintendents. 

3.  To  prepare  for  agricultural  and  other  colleges  which  give 

credit  for  two  units  of  the  work: 


SECOND  FORM  B 

SECOND  FORM  B 

Elective  10  < 

t  Bible                          2 
f  English                        3 
f  Algebra                      5 
J  Modern  Languages 
or  Latin                  5 

Elective  10 

Science                           5 
United   States    His- 
tory                        3 
Elementary  Agricul- 
ture A                      5 

THIRD  FORM  A 


THIRD  FORM  B 


'  Bible                           2 

'  Bible                           2 

'  English                       3 

'  English                        3 

'  Algebra                      3 

'  Geometry                   5 

'  Modern  Languages 

:  Latin                           5 

Elective  10  • 

or  Latin                  5 

Elective  10 

'  German                      5 

Science                       5 

Mathematics              5 

Civics                         3 

Science                       5 

Farm  Crops  B           5 

History                       3 

Farm  Management 

C                              5 

t  Required. 

\  Specially  Recommended. 


Description  of  Schools 


39 


FOURTH  FORM  A 

FOURTH  FORM  B 

t  Bible                            2 

t  Bible                          2 

f  English                        3 

f  English                        3 

f  Geometry                   5 

j  Latin                          5 

t  Latin                           5 

J  German                      5 

Elective  10  • 

Science                       5 

Elective  15  - 

Mathematics              5 

J  German                      5 

Science                       5 

History                       3 

History                       3 

Horticulture    A 

.  Horticulture   B 

(Vegetable  Gar- 

(Fruit   Grow- 

dening)                  5 

ing)                          5 

] 

FIFTH  FORM  A 

FIFTH  FORM  B 

t  Bible 

2 

t  Bible 

2 

f  English 

3 

t  English 

3 

f  Solid  Geometry 

5 

f  Advanced  Algebra 

5 

J  German 

5 

t  German 

5 

Mathematics 

5 

Mathematics 

5 

Elective  10  < 

Science 

5 

Elective  10 

t  Physics 

5 

History 

3 

History 

3 

Horticulture  C 

Animal  Husbandry 

(Ornamental 

A 

5 

Gardening    and 

. 

Forestry) 

5 

SIXTH  FORM  A 

s 

IXTH  FORM  B 

t  Bible 

2 

t  Bible 

2 

f  English 

4 

t  English 

4 

J  German 

5 

|  German 

5 

Elective  15 

J  Mathematics 

5 

Elective  15  < 

!  Mathematics 

5 

j  Physics 

5 

t  Physics 

5 

History 

3 

History 

3 

Ancient  History  B 

5 

Ancient  History  C 

5 

Dairy  A 

5 

. 

Dairy  B 

6 

f  Required. 

J  Specially  Recommended. 


4O     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

The  faculty  of  thirty-six  is  divided  into  ten  departments,  one  of 
which  is  agriculture,  with  two  men,  the  superintendent  of  the 
farm  and  head,  and  a  teacher  who  gives  all  his  time  to  class- 
room work. 

The  farm  superintendent  and  head  of  the  department  holds  his 
B.S.  in  agriculture,  and  has  had  six  years  of  teaching  experience.  He 
was  born  and  raised  on  a  farm  and  has  had  sixteen  years'  experience 
as  farm  superintendent.  Salary  $2,100  and  house. 

The  classroom  teacher  holds  no  degree,  but  has  had  four  years' 
agricultural  college  work  and  six  years'  teaching  experience.  He  was 
born  and  raised  on  a  farm  and  thinks  and  talks  in  the  farmer's 
language.  Salary  $1,400  and  house. 

The  head  is  a  believer  in  the  efficacy  of  'clear  exposition  by  lec- 
ture', but  text-book  recitation  is  nearly  as  frequent  in  the  classroom. 
This  follows  the  text  faithfully,  but  is  lighted  up  somewhat  by  dis- 
cussion in  terms  of  real  experience. 

Laboratory  work,  aside  from  that  in  the  dairy  room,  plays  but  a 
small  part.  Standard  experiments  are  occasionally  set  up  and 
demonstrated  by  the  teacher.  Of  shop  work  there  is,  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding school,  only  such  as  may  come  in  assignment  to  repairs. 

Observation  and  judging,  and  some  practice  in  pruning  and  spray- 
ing are  carried  on  under  the  teachers,  but  the  outside  work,  of  which 
two  hours  per  day  is  required,  including  one  full  day  in  the  week,  is 
for  the  most  part  assigned  tasks  to  groups  selected  in  rotation  by  the 
head,  and  under  foremen.  It  thus  has  no  constant  or  necessary  rela- 
tion to  the  work  of  the  classroom. 

The  school  plant  is  a  large  and  excellent  one,  with  the  exception  of 
the  agricultural  laboratory.  The  school  farm  is  of  1 ,000  acres,  of 
which  400  acres  are  in  crops,  fifty  in  silage  corn,  with  an  apple  or- 
chard and  large  garden.  Of  stock,  there  are  175  head  of  purebred 
Holstein  cattle,  much  in  evidence  at  fairs,  thirty  horses,  100  hogs 
and  a  large  flock  of  hens  to  supply  the  700  students  and  faculty  with 
eggs  and  poultry  'in  commons'.  Farm  buildings  and  machinery  are 
excellent.  In  the  library  are  118  volumes  of  agricultural  reference 
and  a  large  file  of  bulletins  and  papers. 

The  school  is  in  the  open  country  in  a  fairly  prosperous  dairy  re- 
gion. Soil  and  market  conditions  have  determined  the  emphasis  on 
dairying,  but  the  so-called  scientific  order  of  presentation  dominates 
in  selection  and  presentation  of  agriculture.  No  distinction  is  made 
between  farm  and  city  boys. 


Description  of  Schools  41 

Knowledge  of  subject  matter  both  in  the  technological  and  prac- 
tical aspects,  is  marked  in  the  teachers,  but  the  lack  of  correlation 
between  indoor  and  outdoor  work  in  circumstances,  seemingly  pecu- 
liarly favorable,  is  as  distinct  as  in  an  agricultural  college. 


AIMS 

In  every  school  visited  when  the  principal  could  be  consulted  he 
was  asked  for  a  statement  of  the  aims  in  agricultural  courses.  In 
all  the  schools  of  Group  A  the  instructor  in  agriculture  was  asked 
for  a  statement  of  his  aims.  In  the  school  of  Group  B  the  aims  ex- 
pressed are  rather  those  of  the  school  as  a  whole  than  of  the  courses 
in  agriculture,  but,  as  the  work  in  those  schools  is  dominantly  agri- 
cultural, the  statements  are  classified  with  those  from  the  other 
schools  in  Table  4. 

This  classification  cannot  be  considered  rigid  or  exemplary.  There 
is  too  much  vagueness  in  the  expression  used,  too  little  uniformity  in 
meaning  of  the  captions,  and  that  even  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
schools  for  which  the  state  department  has  made  a  definition  of  aim. 
Thus,  most  of  the  instructors  in  the  state-aided  departments  re- 
ported the  aim  of  their  work  as  'vocational',  but  only  five  consid- 
ered their  work  an  entire  preparation  for  productive  farming.  One 
principal  of  a  high  school,  carrying  only  courses  in  domestic  science 
and  agriculture,  and  labeled  by  the  state  'Vocational  School', 
stated  that  his  aim  was  to  turn  as  many  students  as  possible 
into  the  state  normal  schools,  and  to  send  his  most  promising  stu- 
dents to  college.  Since  the  state  college  and  the  normal  schools  were 
willing  to  accept  the  preparation  from  his  school,  and  the  state  paid 
a  large  share  toward  maintaining  a  school  that  without  aid  could  not 
be  maintained  by  the  community,  he  felt  that  the  so-called  voca- 
tional work  should  be  regarded  as  preparatory.  In  general,  the 
meaning  of  'vocational'  seems  to  be  understood  as  preparation  for 
beginning  intelligently  the  productive  work  of  the  farm.  All  state- 
ments conveying  that  meaning  and  those  containing  the  word  voca- 
tional have  been  listed  in  the  first  column. 

The  word  'practical'  was  very  frequently  used.  In  general,  it 
seems  to  denote  'usable  knowledge',  something  that  'they  can  do 
with',  something  that  can  'be  used  on  the  farm'.  But  as  to  what 
knowledge  can  be  used  in  practice  on  the  farm,  there  is  difference  of 
opinion.  One  instructor  said  of  an  excursion  for  the  study  of  geo- 
logic origins  of  soils,  "If  that  isn't  good  practical  agriculture,  I 
don't  know  what  is." 

The  broader  objective  of  preparation  for  that  mode  of  life  which 
is  called  agriculture  was  stated  only  five  times.  That  agricultural 


Aims 


43 


education  implies  a  preparation  for  country  living  is  recognized  in 
the  stated  aims  of  the  Congressional  district  schools.  It  does  not 
follow,  however,  that  schools  for  which  an  expressed  aim,  less 
broad,  is  given  are  doing  less  to  the  attainment  of  that  end. 

Prevocational  is  a  troublesome  word,  but  was  used  six  times  to 
express  the  aim  of  high  school  agriculture.  To  be  sure,  one  principal 
expressed  the  aim  as  "pre vocational,  if  any,"  but  the  others  were 
more  certain  of  their  object,  "To  gain  a  sympathy  with  and  under- 
standing of  farm  life,"  another  put  it.  "Units  of  science  that  may 
give  an  opportunity  for  intelligent  selection  of  a  calling,"  conveys 
the  idea  of  predilection  that  seems  a  part  of  the  idea  expressed  by 
others,  and  in  particular  of  one  experienced  head  of  agricultural 
education  in  a  great  state.  His  words  were  to  this  effect:  "There 
are  three  aspects  to  the  aim  of  agriculture  in  our  high  schools:  the 
prevocational,  the  vocational,  and  the  liberalizing.  It  should  give 
opportunity  for  sympathetic  and  intelligent  election  of  an  occupa- 
tion; preparation  for  the  productive  activities  of  that  occupation, 
and  insight  as  to  the  implications  of  a  great  social  activity." 

Only  four  times  was  the  object  of  an  enlarged  intellectual  and 
emotional  appreciation,  the  liberal  or  cultural  aim,  expressed,  though 
'culture'  was  in  no  case  defined.  On  the  other  hand,  only  twice  was 
doubt  expressed  as  to  the  'cultural'  value  of  agriculture.  One 
principal  said:  "We  strive  for  culture.  We  do  not  advertise  our 
agriculture.  It  is  for  the  local  farmers'  sons."  Another  said  he 
much  regretted  that  he  had  not  been  in  office  "at  the  time  of  the 
establishment  of  the  work  in  agriculture,  so  that  he  might  have 
forestalled  its  introduction.  He  intended  to  give  his  best  efforts  to 
a  reduction  of  the  time  devoted  to  it,  not  that  it  was  not  useful,  but 
because  'culture'  was  more  worth  while. 

The  college  preparatory  aim  is  evident  in  more  cases  than  those 
in  which  it  was  actually  stated.  In  no  case  was  it  given  as  the 
primary  aim  of  agricultural  work.  In  the  study  of  the  curriculum 
the  marked  influence  of  the  preparatory  idea  will  come  out. 

Other  aims  expressed  were  preparation  for  'citizenship',  or  the 
'active  duties  of  a  citizen',  'to  reach  the  boy',  'to  reach  the 
parent',  'to  dignify  manual  labor'.  And  two  principals  rejoiced 
in  the  introduction  of  vocational  agriculture  as  an  'entering  wedge 
to  the  overthrow  of  a  tyrannous  system'  of  uniform  state  exami- 
nations. This  they  regarded  as,  if  not  an  end,  at  least  a  justification 
for  agriculture  in  the  curriculum. 


EQUIPMENT 

Table  5  shows  the  possession  of  land  by  the  various  schools, 
either  as  plots  owned,  hired  or  borrowed,  or  as  a  school  farm.  It 
will  be  noted  that  nineteen  of  the  high  school  group  have  the  use  of 
some  land,  and  seven  own  farms.  Of  the  other  groups,  all  have 
farms.  The  amount  of  land  in  plots  owned,  hired  or  borrowed  for 
agricultural  purposes  varies  from  a  small  hen-yard  in  a  town  high 
school  to  twenty  acres  in  a  city  high  school.  Other  town  or  district 
high  schools  report  one-fourth  acre,  one-half  acre  (two  schools),  one 
acre  (two  schools),  one  and  one-half  acres,  two  and  one-half  acres, 
four  acres,  nine  acres  and  ten  acres  respectively.  Other  city  schools 
report  one-fourth  acre,  one-third  acre,  one-half  acre,  eleven  acres  re- 
spectively ;  county  high  schools,  two  acres  and  seven  acres ;  academy, 
three  acres.  Three  academies  have  farms  of  thirty-five  acres,  and 
150  acres  (two) ;  Congressional  district  schools,  one  sixty  acres,  two 
250  acres,  one  312  acres;  county  agricultural  schools,  one  eighteen 
acres,  one  126  acres,  one  136  acres,  one  130  acres,  of  which  ninety 
acres  are  still  under  lease  to  a  seedsman  and  not  available  for  school 
uses.  Of  the  state  schools,  one  has  a  farm  of  200  acres,  one  of  2,000 
acres;  the  other  is  given  the  use  of  the  university  farm  and  equip- 
ment of  the  state*  The  philanthropic  schools  have  farms,  one  of 
ninety-three  acres,  one  of  400  acres,  one  of  600  acres.  The  prepar- 
atory school  has  a  farm  of  1 ,000  acres.  The  uses  to  which  plots  and 
farms  are  put  will  be  discussed  briefly  later. 

Table  5~A  shows  the  possession  of  neat  stock,  cattle,  swine,  or 
sheep,  horses,  or  mules,  poultry,  and  farm  machinery.  The  parallel 
with  respect  to  possession  of  farms  is  fairly  exact  in  the  schools  of 
Groups  B  and  C.  The  state  schools  are  adequately,  two  of  them 
even  magnificently,  equipped  with  stock  and  machinery.  For  in- 
stance, one  state  school  owns  250  head  of  pure  bred  cattle,  forty 
horses,  100  pure  bred  swine,  and  all  the  necessary  modern  machinery 
of  a  2,ooo-acre  farm.  Three  of  the  country  agricultural  schools  have 
an  excellent  equipment  of  machinery  and  satisfactory  live  stock. 
The  other  is  run  on  a  home  project  basis,  and  has  a  relatively  small 
equipment.  The  philanthropic  schools  are  equipped,  two  of  them 
on  a  business  basis  only,  but  have  the  necessary  machinery  and 


Equipment  45 

stock  for  good  farming.  The  other  is  on  the  home  project  basis  and 
has  largely  foregone  the  possession  of  live  stock.  The  preparatory 
school  has  175  head  of  pure  bred  dairy  cattle,  thirty  horses,  and  an 
excellent  business  equipment. 

In  Group  A,  the  possession  of  live  stock  is  at  a  minimum.  Poultry 
is  the  most  frequent  item.  The  Congressional  district  schools, 
though  possessed  of  large  farms,  are  conspicuously  understocked  and 
under-equipped.  Fifteen  to  twenty  cattle  of  inferior  quality,  on 
three  farms,  and  one  bull  on  the  other  represent  the  cattle.  Some 
good  mules  and  pure  bred  hogs  were  found  on  these  farms,  and  one 
flock  of  pure  bred  poultry.  Only  one  had  the  farm  buildings  and 
machinery  that  may  be  found  on  any  moderately  prosperous  north- 
ern farm  of  the  size.  In  respect  to  use  of  land,  these  schools  make 
a  much  better  showing  than  the  equipment  would  indicate.  They 
are  righting  an  uphill  fight  against  poverty. 

Of  the  farms  owned  by  academies,  only  one  really  deserves  the 
name  of  farm.  The  others  are  tracts  of  land  on  which  the  school 
stands.  That  one  farm  has  a  small  well-housed  herd  of  good  dairy 
cattle,  a  pair  of  good  horses,  nondescript  hogs  and  poultry,  wallow- 
ing in  filth,  and  a  very  modest  equipment  of  machinery  and  build- 
ings. Good  poultry  is  kept  by  another  academy;  the  third  has  a 
handful  of  grade  dairy  cattle.  In  the  town  and  county  high  schools 
represented,  the  poultry  consists  of  pure  bred  flocks.  The  machinery 
varies  from  a  single  gas  engine  to  a  room  stocked  with  modern  horse 
implements  donated  by  warehouse  concerns. 

Two  city  high  schools  and  one  town  high  school  have  small  green- 
houses. One  is  "a  place  to  keep  ornamental  plants  when  they  are 
not  needed  for  parties,"  another  is  used  for  classes  in  botany,  and 
the  third  is  a  place  in  which  students  in  horticulture  grow  tomatoes, 
peppers,  cabbage  and  other  plants  for  sale.  Seven  of  the  schools  in 
Group  B  have  greenhouses  that  are  in  regular  use  by  agricultural 
students.  Six  schools  of  the  high  school  group  have  placed  the 
agricultural  classrooms  and  equipment  in  separate  buildings.  In 
one  case,  this  building  was  constructed  for  the  purpose;  in  another,  it 
is  a  rented  store,  well  fitted  up;  in  the  others,  school  buildings  which 
have  been  abandoned  for  other  purposes.  In  eight  cases,  all  agri- 
cultural work  is  conducted  in  the  basement.  In  one  county  school 
and  two  city  schools  the  instructor  in  agriculture  was  allowed  no 
classroom  of  his  own. 

Twenty-seven  of  the  thirty-nine  schools  in  the  high  school  group 


46     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

have  some  shop  equipment.  Twelve  are  equipped  for  woodwork 
only,  ten  have  forge  as  well  as  carpentry  fittings,  and  five  have 
small  farm  shops  with  a  bench  and  tools,  and  in  three  cases,  a  forge. 
The  equipment  varies  from  rough  benches  built  by  the  boys  with 
their  own  tools  to  the  elaborate  manual  training  rooms  of  the  city 
high  school,  with  electric  power  and  individual  benches.  The 
equipment  listed  in  the  first  two  columns  is  classed  as  scanty  in  the 
case  of  five  town  or  district  high  schools,  three  of  them  state-aided, 
in  one  county  high  school,  one  Congressional  district  school,  and  one 
academy,  state-aided;  as  adequate,  in  the  case  of  one  city  high 
school,  state-aided,  five  town  or  district  high  schools,  state-aided, 
one  county  high  school,  one  academy,  and  one  Congressional  dis- 
trict school ;  as  excellent,  in  the  case  of  three  city  high  schools,  two 
state-aided,  and  one  Congressional  district  school. 

In  Group  B,  forge  and  woodwork  equipment,  with  power,  is  found 
in  nine  schools.  This  equipment  is  rated  adequate  in  the  case  of 
one  county  agricultural  school  and  one  philanthropic  school;  as 
excellent,  in  the  case  of  the  others. 

Table  5  shows  the  possession  and  rating  of  laboratory  equipment 
in  all  schools.  Of  the  five  schools  listed  as  having  no  equipment, 
four  had  equipment  of  some  sort  for  chemistry  or  physics.  The  two 
philanthropic  schools  rated  as  having  scanty  equipment  were  ad- 
equately equipped  for  dairy  work,  and  the  preparatory  school 
excellently  so  equipped.  Poverty  in  respect  to  laboratory  material 
is  marked  in  the  schools  of  Group  A,  twenty-two  of  the  thirty-nine 
having  only  scanty  equipment,  or  none  at  all.  The  case  is  particu- 
larly marked  with  the  Congressional  district  schools,  only  one  of 
which  is  possessed  of  equipment,  and  that  very  scanty.  On  the 
other  hand,  as  in  the  matter  of  stock  and  machinery,  and  shop 
equipment,  the  schools  of  the  special  type,  Group  B,  stand  in 
rather  marked  contrast. 

Tables  6-A  and  6-B  show  the  possession  of  bulletins  and  volumes 
for  reference  in  agricultural  subjects.  The  number  of  bulletins 
owned  by  the  school  is  not  recorded.  At  the  start  of  the  investiga- 
tion a  count  was  made  in  several  schools,  but  the  time  required  was 
too  great.  With  bulletins  coming  in  at  frequent  intervals,  it  was  not 
astonishing  that  no  instructor  knew  the  exact  number  of  bulletins 
in  his  possession.  In  general,  the  classified  lists  were  larger  than  the 
scattered.  In  the  schools  of  Group  B,  the  bulletins  may  be  num- 
bered even  in  thousands.  Two  schools,  both  of  which  possessed 


Equipment  47 

classified  lists,  required  the  students  to  send  to  the  state  agricultural 
experiment  station  and  to  Washington  for  such  bulletins  as  must  be 
studied.  Opinion  prevailed  that  books  are  more  satisfactory  than 
bulletins  for  reference  use.  Every  instructor  of  whom  the  question 
was  asked  affirmed  that  opinion,  but  the  question  was  not  asked  of 
more  than  thirty  instructors.  In  the  matter  of  reference  books, 
three  schools,  one  city,  one  town,  and  one  Congressional  district 
school,  reported  dependence  on  public  libraries,  but  did  not  know 
how  many  volumes  on  agricultural  subjects  were  available  in  them. 
In  Tables  6,  6-A,  and  6-B  the  same  general  differences  between 
Groups  A  and  B  as  in  the  other  equipment  tables  are  observable. 
In  the  matter  of  equipment,  as  might  be  expected,  the  special  schools 
of  agriculture  have  advantage  of  schools  of  the  high  school  type. 

In  forty-three  schools,  lists  of  agricultural  reference  books  were 
secured,  and  in  all  schools  lists  of  the  text-books  actually  in  use  in 
agricultural  subjects  so  recognized.  Of  different  titles  there  appear 
in  the  lists  628.  Counting  only  one  volume  to  each  school,  either  as 
text  or  reference,  the  total  comes  to  2,226,  of  which  1,978  are  reference 
books,  248  texts  regularly  in  use.  Variation  in  the  number  of  refer- 
ence volumes  is  shown  in  Table  6-B.  In  Table  7  are  shown  the 
number  of  titles  under  the  topic  treated  and  the  number  in  each 
such  group  now  in  regular  use  as  text-books.  The  distribution  may 
suggest  confirmation  of  the  statement  made  previously  concerning 
the  productive  aspect  of  the  mass  of  country  life  publications.  A 
list  of  titles  appearing  in  five  or  more  schools  as  reference  or  texts  is 
given  also.  (Table  8.) 


TEACHERS 

Among  schools  of  the  high  school  type,  in  Group  A,  teachers  of 
agricultural  subjects  are  ordinarily  called  upon  to  teach  subjects 
other  than  those  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  field  of  productive 
agriculture.  In  twenty-six  of  the  thirty-nine  schools  the  teacher  of 
agriculture  is  so  employed.  The  granting  of  special  aid  for  agri- 
culture to  the  high  school  usually  entails  the  requirement  that  the 
teacher  shall  give  all  his  time  to  agriculture.  In  Maine  and  Wis- 
consin, the  requirement  is  not  made.  In  Minnesota,  the  amount  of 
state  aid  is  diminished  in  the  ratio  that  time  given  by  the  agriculture 
man  to  other  subjects  bears  to  the  total  of  his  teaching  hours.  But 
in  other  states  the  requirement  is  not  strictly  enforced.  Of  the 
twenty-six  schools  in  which  teachers  give  part  time  to  other  classes, 
ten  are  receiving  grants  of  state  aid  particularly  for  the  maintenance 
of  agricultural  courses.  It  is  noteworthy,  however,  that  for  the 
thirteen  schools  in  which  all  teaching  time  by  those  men  is  given  to 
agriculture,  special  state  aid  is  granted.  Two  or  three  added  sub- 
jects are  common. 

In  a  school  not  receiving  state  aid  for  the  special  subject  it  is  not 
ordinarily  possible  to  employ  a  teacher  whose  whole  time  shall  be 
given  to  the  teaching  of  the  one  subject.  In  schools  receiving  special 
aid  the  newness  of  the  installation  of  the  work  may  mean  that  the 
teacher  is  not  yet  fully  employed  by  the  tasks  of  his  own  depart- 
ment, and  that  he  is,  accordingly,  drafted  into  other  work. 

Commonly,  the  teacher  of  agriculture,  even  in  the  high  school 
group,  gives  a  part  of  his  time  to  extension  work  outside  of  school 
hours.  In  twenty  of  the  thirty-nine  schools  of  Group  A  this  fact 
appears.  He  may  also  have  charge  of  garden  work  in  the  grades,  or 
even  of  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  grades,  as  is  shown  in  the 
same  table. 

In  only  five  schools  of  the  first  group  did  the  teacher  of  agriculture 
serve  as  principal  also.  Most  commonly  he  acted,  if  called  upon 
for  other  subjects,  as  teacher  of  the  sciences,  botany,  physics,  zo- 
ology, chemistry,  or  general  science,  but  the  range  of  subjects 
taught  by  high  school  teachers  of  agriculture  is  wide,  as  may  be 
seen  in  Table  8. 


Teachers  49 

In  the  fifty  schools  visited,  the  regular  teachers  of  agricultural 
subjects  were  men,  in  the  schools  of  Groups  B  and  C  strictly  depart- 
mental teachers;  in  the  schools  of  the  high  school  group  more  widely 
distributed  as  to  duties.  One  county  high  school,  and  two  town 
high  schools  state-aided,  employed  two  men  for  the  agricultural 
work,  but  the  rule  in  the  high  school  is  the  employment  of  a  single 
teacher.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  however,  from  the  results  of  the 
study  that  teachers  of  agriculture  in  the  high  school  are  always  men. 
In  Table  i-D,  dealing  with  the  distribution  of  salaries  among 
teachers  of  agriculture  in  the  high  schools  of  Iowa,  where  no  state 
aid  is  given,  it  is  shown  that  fifty-eight  out  of  the  406  teachers  in 
the  list  are  women.  In  the  half-unit  and  one-unit  courses  common 
in  middle  western  rural  high  schools,  where  the  text-book  dominates 
in  company  with  the  state  manual,  there  is  no  reason  why  an  intel- 
ligent woman,  even  from  the  city,  should  not  conduct  the  course  in 
approved  fashion  as  well  as  the  male  teacher  of  science,  the  principal, 
or  the  superintendent.  But  in  the  more  promising  schools  consid- 
ered in  the  study,  the  tendency  to  employment  of  specially  trained 
men  is  marked. 

In  Tables  9  and  9— A  the  training  of  seventy-nine  teachers  of 
agriculture,  forty-two  in  Group  A  and  thirty-seven  in  Groups  B  and 
C  is  shown,  together  with  the  visitor's  rating  of  the  teaching  ability 
demonstrated  at  the  time  of  visit.  This  rating  can  hardly  be  re- 
garded as  conclusive  in  any  particular.  It  is,  of  course,  impression- 
istic, and  subject  to  the  variations  in  mood,  and  the  personal  atti- 
tude of  the  visitor.  Moreover,  it  is  based  upon  but  a  single  visit. 
Yet  it  was  made  with  certain  criteria  in  mind,  particularly,  knowledge 
of  the  subject  displayed,  specific  applications  in  discussion,  concrete 
and  thought-provoking  questioning,  evaluation  and  emphasis,  evi- 
dent motive  and  initiative  in  the  class.  In  certain  subjects,  partic- 
ularly in  the  field  of  agricultural  engineering,  the  visitor  is  not  qual- 
ified to  pass  judgment  upon  the  knowledge  shown  by  teacher  or 
class,  or  upon  the  evaluation  and  emphasis  given  to  different  phases 
of  the  work.  Accordingly,  teachers  in  these  subjects  have  for  the 
most  part  not  been  rated.  If  any  suggestion  is  to  be  derived  from 
this  rating,  it  is  that  the  somewhat  superior  training  of  teachers  in 
the  schools  of  Groups  B  and  C  makes  itself  evident  in  the  class- 
room. 

As  factors  in  training  are  listed,  birth  and  upbringing,  duration  of 
farm  experience  of  city-born  teachers,  years  of  teaching  experience, 


5O     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

length  of  pedagogical  training,  preparation  in  subject  including,  for 
shop  teachers,  the  'school'  of  trade  practice. 

It  will  be  noted  that  of  the  seventy-nine  teachers  in  the  table, 
sixty-five  were  born  and  brought  up  on  farms.  In  the  high  schools 
eleven  of  the  forty- two  were  city  or  town  bred,  of  those  in  the  special 
schools  only  three  of  thirty-five;  more  than  twenty-five  per  cent,  in 
the  one  group,  less  than  ten  per  cent,  in  the  other.  Most  of  these 
city-born  teachers  have  had  some  farm  experience,  only  three  re- 
porting none  outside  of  that  connected  with  their  agricultural  college 
training.  An  experience,  however,  only  in  summer  work  is  one  by 
no  means  equivalent  to  that  which  takes  in  the  winter  aspects  of 
farm  living  also.  The  teacher  whose  record  shows  an  experience  of 
six  summers  had  undertaken  consistently  to  make  up  what  he  felt 
was  a  defect  in  his  training.  During  the  eight  summers  he  has  had 
free  since  his  graduation  from  college,  he  has  spent  six  as  a  hired 
laborer,  each  on  a  different  farm  in  a  different  locality.  In  the  other 
two,  he  made  trips  to  the  middle  west  and  Pacific  slope  and  traveled 
afoot  through  farming  sections.  Among  the  farm-born  teachers  are 
several  who  have  been  for  from  one  to  twenty  years,  managers  or 
working  owners  of  farms. 

In  teaching  experience,  many  of  the  men  are  deficient.  Twelve 
are  in  their  first  year,  forty-five  have  taught  three  years  or  less,  of 
whom  thirty-three  are  in  the  high  schools.  In  length  of  experience 
the  advantage  lies  with  the  teachers  of  the  special  agricultural 
schools,  twenty-two  of  the  thirty-five  having  had  from  four  to 
twenty-two  years  of  teaching. 

Twenty-six  of  the  seventy-nine  teachers  have  had  some  measure 
of  pedagogical  training,  varying  from  a  single  summer's  course  in 
education,  to  the  completion,  in  one  case,  of  the  requirements  for  the 
Master's  degree  in  educational  subjects.  With  respect  to  training 
in  the  teaching  process,  the  high  school  group  makes  the  greater 
showing.  Eighteen  teachers  have  taken  courses  in  education, 
twelve  of  them  during  the  last  year  of  their  college  course. 

Agricultural  college  training  is  the  rule,  thirty-seven  of  the  forty- 
two  teachers  in  Group  A  reporting  such  training;  in  Groups  B  and 
C,  thirty-two  of  the  thirty-nine,  seven  being  shop  men  of  trade  or 
technical  school  training.  The  degree  of  B.S.,  given  by  an  agri- 
cultural college  is  by  far  the  most  common,  appearing  fifty-three 
times,  thirty-four  in  the  high  schools,  nineteen  in  the  other  groups. 
Master  of  Science  in  agriculture  appears  once  in  the  high  school 


Teachers  51 


. 


group,  six  times  among  the  agricultural  schools.  The  degree  of 
Ph.D.  is  held  by  directors  of  three  of  the  agricultural  schools. 

The  typical  teacher  in  the  high  school  group  holds  his  B.S.  from 
an  agricultural  college,  was  born  and  raised  on  a  farm,  has  taught 
school  less  than  two  years,  and  has  had  no  pedagogical  training. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  teacher  in  the  agricultural  school 
except  that  his  experience  in  teaching  is  five  years  and  he  is  more 
likely  to  have  achieved  a  higher  degree.  The  generalization  must 
not  be  carried  over  into  the  whole  field,  however,  though  the  differ- 
ence would  become  more  marked. 

Under  the  home  project  scheme  common  in  state-aided  high 
schools,  and  in  the  agricultural  schools  where  extension  work  is 
usually  a  duty  of  the  teacher,  he  is  likely  to  be  hired  for  twelve 
months,  rather  than  for  the  academic  year;  fifty-nine  of  the  seventy- 
nine  teachers  are  so  hired.  In  the  unaided  high  school  such  tenure 
is  probably  the  rare  exception. 


SALARIES 

Table  10  shows  the  range  of  salaries  among  406  teachers  of  agri- 
culture in  the  high  schools  of  Iowa,  where  no  special  state  aid  is 
given.  In  the  data  available  there  was  no  means  of  determining 
whether  or  not  the  teacher  of  agriculture  was  also  the  principal  or 
superintendent.  That  he  is,  is  doubtless  the  case  frequently,  and 
tends  to  skew  the  distribution  upward.  In  Iowa,  it  would  appear 
that  it  is  more  profitable  to  be  a  man  than  a  woman,  more  profitable 
to  have  some  agricultural  college  training  than  to  be  without  it. 
For  all  teachers  of  agriculture  $900  is  the  favorite  allotment  of 
salary;  for  women  about  $650,  for  men  from  agricultural  colleges 
about  $1,000,  for  women  from  agricultural  colleges  about  $700. 

The  effect  of  state  aid  upon  salaries  may  be  noted  on  page  26-A 
where  are  shown  salaries  of  teachers  in  sixty-one  state-aided  schools 
of  New  York  in  1915.  The  median  salary  is  there  $1,200.  All  these 
men  have  an  agricultural  college  training  or  what  is  approved  by 
the  state  department  of  education  as  equivalent.  A  like  effect 
appears  in  the  distribution  of  teachers'  salaries  in  136  state-aided 
high  schools  of  Minnesota  in  1913-1914.  The  median  there  is 
$1,250,  and  salaries  have  been  'somewhat  increased'  since  then. 
The  same  statement  in  regard  to  training  holds  as  with  the  New 
York  teachers.  Classification  by  colleges  in  which  state-aided  high 
school  teachers  of  agriculture  were  trained,  as  reported  for  1915,  is 
indicative  of  state  requirements  under  grant  of  state  aid.  See  page 
28-A. 

Salaries  reported  from  four  county  agricultural  schools  of  Wis- 
consin for  1913-1914,  including  salaries  of  directors,  show  a  range 
from  $850  to  $3,000,  with  a  median  salary  of  $1,500.  Because  of  the 
form  in  which  figures  for  all  these  schools  were  given,  it  was  possible 
to  use  only  the  four;  but  the  median  is  not  far  from  correct  for  all 
schools. 

For  the  fifty  schools  of  the  study  the  distribution  of  salaries  for 
seventy-seven  teachers  is  shown  in  Table  12.  In  the  high  schools 
the  range  is  from  $540  for  the  teacher  of  science  and  agriculture  in  a 
Congressional  district  school  to  $2,100  for  the  teacher  of  agriculture 
in  a  state-aided  town  high  school.  The  median  salary  is  $1,200.  In 


Salaries  53 

the  agricultural  schools  the  range  is  from  $840  for  the  instructor  in 
dairying  in  a  philanthropic  school  to  $5,000  to  the  director  of  a 
school  of  the  same  group.  All  salaries  above  $2,000  are  paid  to 
directors.  The  median  salary  for  this  group,  including  salaries  of 
directors  or  principals,  is  $1,600;  for  directors,  $2,700;  for  other 
teachers,  $1,500.  The  figures  in  the  table  include  estimates  for 
board  or  rent  when  such  make  a  part  of  the  compensation.  Teachers 
in  the  special  schools  again  appear  somewhat  better  paid  than  those 
in  the  high  schools. 


ENROLMENT 

A  tabulation  of  the  enrolment  in  agriculture  in  462  high  schools 
of  Iowa  shows  a  median  enrolment  of  twenty  pupils.  The  same 
median  appears  in  the  enrolment  for  forty-four  state-aided  high 
schools  of  New  York.  For  the  schools  of  the  study  the  range  in 
Group  A  is  from  ten  to  143  pupils,  the  larger  numbers  appearing  in 
the  Congressional  district  and  county  schools  where  every  boy 
takes  agriculture,  and,  in  one  case,  every  girl,  also.  The  median 
stands  at  twenty-one.  In  Group  B  the  range  is  from  forty-one  in  a 
philanthropic  school  to  597  in  a  state  school.  The  median  is  105. 

As  might  be  expected  in  the  special  schools  where  attendance  im- 
plies the  intention  to  study  agriculture,  the  enrolment  is  larger  than 
in  the  high  schools  where  various  courses  are  open.  In  only  one 
school  of  Group  B  can  a  student  gain  his  diploma  without  taking 
agriculture.  That  school  shows  the  smallest  enrolment  in  that 
course  of  any  in  the  group. 

A  trend  to  the  selection  of  farm  lads  is  probably  indicated  in 
Table  13.  This  is,  no  doubt,  in  part  due  to  location,  though  even 
one  city  high  school  shows  over  ninety  per  cent,  farm  boys  in  agri- 
culture. On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  noted  that  three  city  high 
schools  are  dealing  with  city  boys,  whereas  the  Congressional  dis- 
trict schools  in  the  open  country  in  states  where  cities  are  few,  deal 
with  country  lads.  The  two  philanthropic  schools  in  column  I 
were  founded  for  city  boys,  the  one  county  agricultural  school 
showing  a  majority  of  city  boys  is  located  in  a  suburb  of  a  large 
city.  The  median  proportion  of  country  lads  is  about  sixty-five 
per  cent,  in  high  schools,  in  the  special  schools  about  seventy-five 
per  cent.  The  preparatory  school  with  a  cosmopolitan  enrolment 
of  700  boys,  shows  a  distinct  selection  of  the  country  lads. 

An  important  pedagogical  problem  is  indicated  in  the  fact  that 
more  than  half  the  schools  are  dealing  with  groups  of  boys  of 
widely  different  life  experience  before  entering  school.  In  what 
respects  adjustments  have  been  made  to  meet  this  problem  will  be 
considered  later. 


AGE  OF  PUPILS 

The  impression  gained  by  the  visitor  was  that  the  Congressional 
district  schools  in  Group  A  and  the  agricultural  schools  were  dealing 
with  more  mature  students  than  the  run  of  high  schools.  The  ages 
given  in  Table  14  seem  to  confirm  the  impression.  The  figures, 
however,  are  not  strictly  accurate,  more  than  half  the  returns  being 
obvious  estimates  by  teacher  or  principal.  Three  factors  enter  to 
account  for  the  greater  maturity  of  students  in  these  schools:  (i) 
The  higher  age  requirements  for  entrance;  (2)  the  fact  that  all  but 
two  of  the  schools  are  'away-from-home  schools',  to  which  imma- 
ture students  are  less  likely  to  be  entrusted ;  (3)  the  greater  diversi- 
fication in  agricultural  work  that  attracts  students  who  have  been 
at  work  for  some  time  already.  Men  of  twenty-five  or  more  were 
not  infrequently  in  the  classes  of  such  schools. 

Upon  this  greater  maturity  several  principals  have  based  the 
use  of  the  lecture  method  and  the  close  approximation  to  college 
procedure  that  distinguish  the  schools  as  a  group  from  the  high 
schools. 


ENTRANCE  REQUIREMENTS 

Entrance  requirements  to  courses  or  departments  in  agriculture 
are  commonly  identical  with  those  for  other  courses  offered  in  the 
school.  However,  in  the  state-aided  vocational  departments  of 
high  schools  in  Indiana,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  Massachu- 
setts, provision  is  made  for  the  entrance  to  work  in  agriculture  of 
those  who  do  not  seek  a  high  school  diploma  on  an  age  basis  of 
fourteen  years.  Fifteen  schools  in  Group  A,  all  of  them  state-aided, 
have  this  provision.  Eleven  of  them  show  the  admission  of  students 
with  the  approval  of  the  principal  on  the  age  basis.  The  number  so 
admitted  is,  however,  small.  In  the  Congressional  district  schools 
students  are  in  practice  admitted  who  have  not  met  the  established 
requirements.  With  the  approval  of  the  principal,  students  of  high 
school  age,  considered  capable  of  carrying  the  school  work  have 
been  admitted  on  trial. 

In  one  country  agricultural  school  and  the  three  philanthropic 
schools,  students  are  admitted  on  the  age  basis  alone.  In  the 
philanthropic  schools,  age  is  the  basic  requirement.  In  one,  'four- 
teen years  and  the  desire  to  take  the  course',  is  all  that  is  necessary; 
in  the  others,  'eighteen  years  and  the  physique  for  farm  labor,  with 
ability  to  read  and  write'.  In  the  latter  two,  selection  of  candidates 
is  made  by  the  principal  through  personal  interview.  In  the  state 
schools,  two  require  an  age  of  sixteen  years  in  addition  to  the  com- 
pletion of  Grade  VIII  or  a  preparation  approved  as  equivalent,  one, 
an  age  of  seventeen  years  and  not  less  than  six  months'  farm  experi- 
ence besides  the  completion  of  Grade  VIII.  In  three  county  agri- 
cultural schools,  fourteen  years  and  the  approved  equivalent  of 
Grade  VIII  completion  is  necessary. 

In  general,  the  completion  of  elementary  school  work  in  the  par- 
ticular state  wherein  the  school  is  located  determines  entrance,  the 
fact  of  completion  being  determined  sometimes  by  certificate,  some- 
times by  examination.  Thus,  thirty-one  schools  of  the  high  school 
group  base  admission  to  agricultural  courses  on  Grade  VIII  com- 
pletion, and  seven  of  the  schools  of  Group  B  do  the  same.  Require- 
ments for  School  C  are  already  given.  Grade  VIII  completion 
probably  represents  admission  standards  for  the  great  majority  of 
schools  in  the  country,  Grade  VII  being  standard  in  the  South. 


UNITS  OF  AGRICULTURE  OFFERED   IN 
HIGH  SCHOOLS 

In  schools  of  the  high  school  type,  offerings  in  agriculture  have 
been  reduced  approximately  to  the  common  high  school  unit,  for 
exhibition:  i.e.,  five  forty-minute  periods  per  week  through  the 
academic  year,  a  double  period  of  laboratory  or  shop  work  counting 
as  one  period  for  credit.  The  seven  and  one-half  Regents  credits  for 
agriculture  in  New  York  thus  are  one  and  one-half  units  per  year,  or 
six  units  for  the  course.  The  fifteen  periods  a  week  for  agriculture 
in  Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania  count  for  eight  units  in  the  four- 
year  course.  Table  15  shows  the  distribution  of  schools  in  Group  A 
under  this  unit  classification. 

The  distribution  of  the  same  schools  under  state  aid  for  courses 
in  agriculture,  state  maintenance  of  school  irrespective  of  agriculture, 
and  without  aid  from  the  state,  appears  in  Table  2. 

The  effect  of  state  aid  in  increasing  the  number  of  units  offered 
is  evident  from  Table  16.  The  median  offering  for  the  sixteen 
schools  in  which  no  special  aid  is  given  for  agriculture  is  4;  for 
schools  to  which  such  special  aid  is  granted,  6. 

Additional  figures  suggest  a  like  effect. 

In  Iowa,  492  high  schools,  unaided,  show  the  following  distribu- 
tion of  units,  with  a  median  offering  of  one  unit: 

UNITS  SCHOOLS 

tf  243 

K  3 

1  212 
I#  6 

2  19 

2^  I 

3  3 

4  5 

In  Illinois,  of  seventy  schools,  unaided,  carrying  agriculture,  ten 
carry  two  units  or  more. 

In  Vermont,  slightly  aided  schools,  nine  offer  four  units,  four 
offer  two  units. 


58     Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

In  New  Hampshire,  unaided  schools,  one  offers  six  units,  twenty- 
two  offer  four  units,  two  offer  two  units. 

In  Michigan,  unaided  schools,  fifty  have  installed  a  four-unit 
course. 

In  Minnesota,  176  state-aided  schools  have  met  the  state  require- 
ments calling  for  a  four-unit  course,  though  the  actual  offering  is 
sometimes  less. 

In  New  York,  sixty-one  state-aided  high  schools  are  offering  six 
units,  and  three  state-aided  intermediate  schools  devote  the  same 
time  to  a  like  course. 

In  Pennsylvania,  twenty-three,  and  in  Massachusetts  eleven  high 
schools  are  receiving  aid  for  an  eight-unit  course. 

For  the  agricultural  schools  with  their  more  specialized  courses, 
greater  diversification  of  agricultural  subject  matter,  less  uniform 
length  of  year,  and  of  courses,  no  attempt  at  evaluation  in  terms  of 
the  high  school  unit  has  been  made.  The  total  offerings,  however, 
are  normally  higher  than  in  the  high  schools. 

The  greater  uniformity  in  length  of  year  and  course  in  the  high 
school  group  is  shown  in  Table  17.  Apparently,  state  aid  has  no 
effect  to  lengthen  the  course,  except  as  the  summer  projects  be  in- 
cluded, as  will  be  noted  later.  Normal  length  of  year  is  thirty-six 
weeks;  of  course,  four  years.  In  the  agricultural  schools  variation 
in  length  of  course  and  year  is  marked,  the  range  being  from  one 
year  to  four,  from  twenty-four  weeks  to  twelve  months. 

The  presence  of  boarding  pupils,  though  it  presents  a  problem  in 
the  matter  of  maintenance  of  projects,  has  no  effect  on  length  of 
course.  It  is  noteworthy,  however,  that  the  only  schools  to  main- 
tain a  school  year  of  twelve  months  are  boarding  schools. 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY— THE  ACADEMIC  SUBJECTS 

In  the  following  brief  discussion  of  those  subjects  in  the  curric- 
ulum which  are  not  recognized,  usually,  as  agricultural,  there  are  in- 
cluded in  the  compilation  several  which  are  normally  elective.  In 
such  cases  the  basis  for  inclusion  is  the  fact  that  they  are  those  taken 
by  a  majority  of  students  in  agriculture  or  are  regularly  recom- 
mended for  such  students  by  principals  or  directors.  In  three 
schools,  where  long  lists  of  electives  were  provided,  the  data  were 
not  sufficiently  clear  to  be  included,  and  only  those  subjects  that 
were  required  of  students  in  agriculture  enter  in  the  tables. 

ENGLISH 

Of  all  subjects  in  the  course  of  study,  English  is  the  most  uni- 
formly required.  Every  school  of  the  fifty  offered  English ;  only  one, 
a  philanthropic  school,  failed  to  require  it.  In  the  units  offered  as 
well  as  in  the  content,  the  schools  of  Group  B  show  some  diversity; 
in  the  other  schools  uniformity  is  notable. 

Thirty-six  of  the  thirty-nine  high  schools  offer  four  years  of 
English,  the  other  three  offer  three  years.  Thirty  schools  offer  four 
full  units;  four,  three  units;  four,  two  and  one-half  units;  one,  two 
units.  Two  of  the  four-unit  schools  make  the  subject  elective  in  the 
last  year.  In  all  others  the  full  offering  is  required. 

In  content,  the  subject  is  usually  college  entrance  English,  con- 
sisting of  composition  under  the  heads  of  Narration,  Description, 
Exposition  and  Argument,  and  the  shredding  of  literary  master- 
pieces chosen  from  the  list  in  college  entrance  requirements  or  the 
state  manual.  In  the  first  year,  or  first  two  years,  part  of  the  time 
may  be  given  to  English  grammar,  as  is  notably  the  case  in  the 
Southern  county  and  Congressional  district  schools,  and  the  one 
junior  high  school. 

No  case  of  differentiation  of  English  to  meet  special  needs  of 
agricultural  students  is  recorded  among  the  high  schools  unless  the 
use  of  the  Silver  Burdette  Farm  Readers  in  the  Congressional  dis- 
trict schools  be  noted  as  such. 

The  smaller  number  of  units  noted  for  the  agricultural  schools  is 
due  mainly  to  the  shorter  courses  and  shorter  years  in  those  schools. 


60     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

High  school  'standards'  regulate  the  content  for  the  most  part. 
Only  for  short-course  students  in  two  country  agricultural  schools, 
and  for  all  students  in  the  philanthropic  schools  is  special  English 
given.  The  course  then  becomes  'Business  English'  or  'Voca- 
tional English'  and  deals  with  the  writing  of  business  letters,  the 
summarizing  of  texts,  articles  or  bulletins  on  agricultural  subjects, 
and  the  reading  of  country  life  literature,  or  of  masterpieces  for  the 
interest  that  is  in  them.  In  one  case  the  course  is  designated  'Con- 
ference English',  and  is  supposed  to  help  students  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  their  notes  and  readings  in  other  classes.  Mr.  Perry  of  the 
Milwaukee  County  Agricultural  School  has  organized  his  work  in 
this  wise : 

Conversation  and   Reading,   Correspondence  and   Composition, 
Current  Literature  of  Farm  and  Home,  Organization  and  De- 
bating, a  term  being  given  to  each  topic. 

READING 

Reading  of  the  regular  grade  selection  is  given  in  the  first  two 
years  of  the  junior  high  school,  and  in  the  first  year  of  one  state- 
aided  high  school  of  New  York. 

SPELLING  AND  WRITING 

Penmanship  is  required  for  two  periods  a  week  in  the  third  year 
of  one  county  high  school,  and  for  the  first  year  of  one  Congressional 
district  school,  after  which  the  same  time  is  given  to  spelling  in  the 
following  two  years.  Two  other  such  schools  give  one  period  to 
writing  and  spelling  through  two  and  three  years  respectively.  One 
New  York  school  requires  a  period  during  the  first  year,  and  in  the 
junior  high  school  it  continues  through  the  full  course. 

MATHEMATICS — ARITHMETIC 

Arithmetic,  usually  a  review  of  processes,  is  offered  in  thirteen 
schools  of  Group  A  and  seven  of  Group  B.  In  only  four  cases  in 
each  group  is  it  differentiated  to  meet  the  needs  of  agricultural 
students,  when  it  becomes  'Farm  Arithmetic',  usually  an  attempt 
to  teach  agriculture  through  arithmetic,  rather  than  to  teach  arith- 
metic through  the  farm  experiences  of  the  pupil.  The  work,  how- 
ever, may  be  more  or  less  concrete  and  applicable.  The  notable 
exception  is  the  junior  high  school,  where  the  work  is  carried  on 
through  the  first  year  without  an  assigned  text-book.  In  project 


The  Course  of  Study — the  Academic  Subjects  61 

schools  a  good  deal  of  concrete  arithmetic  enters  into  the  work  even 
though  no  definite  course  be  given.  The  same  can  be  said  of  courses 
in  feeding  and  fertilizers. 

ALGEBRA 

Algebra  to  quadratic  equations  is  the  rule  in  the  high  schools, 
thirty-six  of  the  thirty-nine  requiring  the  subject,  and  two  offering 
advanced  or  review  work  in  the  subject.  In  the  county  agricultural 
schools  it  appears  as  a  factor  in  receiving  high  school  credit,  in  the 
philanthropic  school  a  brief  dose  is  given  as  tonic  to  the  mind. 

GEOMETRY 

A  like  statement  is  applicable  to  geometry.  In  the  solid  form 
it  is  included  with  Review  Mathematics.  Strangely  enough,  an  agri- 
cultural student  in  the  preparatory  school  may  escape  it,  though 
his  chances  are  not  great,  because  of  the  pressure  of  college  prep- 
aration. 

SURVEYING 

Surveying  is  offered  in  six  schools,  all  of  which  have  farms  and 
carry  on  actual  practice  in  land  measurements.  In  two  cases  level- 
ing and  the  laying  of  drains  in  an  actual  project  was  reported.  A 
brief  treatment  of  farm  surveying  is  frequent  in  farm  management 
courses. 

HISTORY  AND  Civics 

United  States  history  and  government  is  as  regularly  a  required 
subject  as  algebra  or  geometry.  It  is  regarded  as  of  peculiar  value 
as  a  preparation  for  citizenship.  At  the  same  time  it  would  appear 
that  only  those  boys  who  survive  the  first  three  years  of  the  high 
school  are  thought  worthy  of  this  particular  training.  Only  six 
times  is  the  work  offered  earlier  than  the  fourth  year  of  the  course. 
In  the  special  schools  where  the  course  is  of  two  years  only,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  give  the  subject  in  the  second  year. 

United  States  history  and  civics  may  be  given  as  separate  sub- 
jects. The  United  States  history  thus  given  appears  to  be  the 
regular  eighth  grade  history,  in  schools  where  Grade  VIII  is  in- 
cluded. Civics  as  a  separate  subject  appears  more  frequently  in 
the  special  schools  than  in  the  high  school  group  and  is  sometimes 
differentiated  from  the  ordinary  study  of  national,  state  and  local 
government.  In  one  case  it  is  studied  in  connection  with  sanitation, 


62     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

in  another  designated  as  'Community  Civics',  in  another  as 
'Community  and  Citizen'.  In  one  philanthropic  school  for  Jewish 
boys,  civics,  like  English,  is  elective,  and  is  seldom  elected.  In 
another,  civics  is  a  part  of  the  farm  management. 

Ancient,  English  and  general  history  form  a  part  of  the  work  of 
agricultural  students  in  many  of  the  high  schools,  English  history 
being  most  frequent.  State  history  is  required  of  students  in  the 
Georgia  Congressional  district  schools,  and  in  the  county  high 
school  of  Maryland.  Industrial  history  and  the  history  of  agricul- 
ture appear  in  only  three  schools,  one  county  high  school  and  two 
county  agricultural  schools.  The  history  of  his  vocation  is  consid- 
ered of  less  importance  to  the  student  than  that  of  the  wars  of 
foreign  peoples. 

FINE  ARTS  AND  Music 

Fine  Arts  is  required  of  agricultural  students  for  two  periods  a 
week  in  one  New  England  academy,  for  cultural  purposes.  Music, 
which  is  worthy  of  serious  attention  on  the  part  of  one  who  plans 
a  course  in  preparation  for  the  life  of  a  farmer,  is  given  to  students 
in  two  county  agricultural  schools  throughout  the  course,  in  one 
case  one  period  a  week,  in  the  other,  three  periods.  One  county 
high  school  teaches  a  class  one  period  a  week  for  two  years,  a  town 
high  school  two  periods  a  week  for  the  first  year.  The  allotment  of 
time  to  music  does  not  seem  extravagant  in  schools  which  incor- 
porate in  their  requirements,  algebra  and  Latin. 

FOREIGN  LANGUAGES 

The  tendency  to  the  omission  of  foreign  languages  from  the 
course  for  agricultural  students  is  interesting.  Latin  is  given  them 
regularly  in  only  five  schools,  French  in  four,  and  German  in  eight. 
The  schools  in  which  French  is  taught  are  in  New  England,  all  of 
them  in  New  Hampshire,  where  the  French  Canadian  population 
is  large.  Five  of  the  schools  that  teach  German  are  in  the  Middle 
West,  in  communities  where  people  of  German  origin  are  many. 
The  most  notable  point  in  regard  to  foreign  languages  is  the  com- 
plete omission  in  the  special  schools. 

GEOGRAPHY 

Geography  of  the  eighth  grade  is  taught  in  two  schools.  Com- 
mercial geography,  in  which  the  correlation  with  the  productive 


The  Course  of  Study — the  Academic  Subjects  63 

side  of  agriculture  is  marked,  is  taught  in  one  high  school.  Physical 
geography  and  'Geology  of  the  Farm'  go  together  in  one  county 
agricultural  school. 

BIBLE 

Bible  study  is  required  of  all  students  in  one  New  England 
academy,  and  in  the  preparatory  school,  both  of  which  were 
founded  under  church  auspices.  It  is  elective  in  one  philanthropic 
school,  but  is  seldom  elected. 

GYMNASIUM 

Required  gymnastics  throughout  the  course  appears  in  two 
schools  only,  one  a  state  school,  where  actual  farm  work  is  at  a 
minimum.  Directors  in  the  special  schools  hold  that  farm  work 
does  away  with  the  necessity  for  gymnastic  exercise.  In  the  high 
schools  athletic  games  were  usual,  sometimes  with  a  special  coach, 
and  several  had  well  equipped  gymnasiums,  but  physical  exercise 
did  not  appear  as  a  requirement. 

THE  SCIENCES 

In  the  study  of  the  production  of  plants  and  animals,  the  princi- 
ples of  science  must  be  applied  to  control  of  the  race  through 
heredity,  of  the  individual  through  nurture.  There  are  three  views 
commonly  expressed  with  regard  then  to  the  place  of  the  sciences  in 
the  course  of  study  for  students  of  agriculture.  One:  That  the  func- 
tion of  the  science  courses  is  to  furnish  a  background  in  classroom, 
laboratory,  and  field  experience,  for  the  technology  of  agriculture. 
Two:  That  the  sciences  should  furnish  an  organized  structure  of 
correlated  natural  laws  that  shall  be  clothed  and  filled  in  through 
the  concrete  applications  involved  in  the  later  or  concurrent  study 
of  agriculture.  Three:  That  the  concrete  applications  of  science 
in  agriculture  shall  be  an  inductive  means  to  the  discovery  of  the 
laws  of  nature,  which  shall  later  or  concurrently  be  unified  in  the 
study  of  pure  science.  In  other  words,  the  first  two  views  look  upon 
science  as  preparatory  to  agricultural  subjects,  the  third  looks  upon 
agriculture  as  preparatory  to  science.  These  views  were  expressed 
by  some  eight  or  ten  principals  and  state  officers,  as  guiding  in  the 
organization  of  the  curriculum.  The  one  set  would  indicate  the 
placing  of  science  early  in  the  course,  the  other  late.  But  that  such 
views  do  actually  dominate  in  the  run  of  courses  is  doubtful,  for  if 


OF 
f    TJNIV] 


64     Organization  and  Method  in  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

such  is  the  case  the  maker  of  the  course  ordinarily  holds  both  views. 
That  is,  in  the  same  course,  commonly,  botany  is  given  in  the  first 
year,  chemistry  in  the  last.  But  that  certain  sciences  are  predomi- 
nantly looked  upon  as  preparatory,  may  be  judged  from  the  fol- 
lowing synopsis: 

GENERAL  SCIENCE 

One  course  that  is  undoubtedly  given  its  place  for  the  sake  of  its 
'background'  value  is  General  Science,  that  much  quarreled  over 
hodge-podge  of  biological,  chemical,  and  physical  instances.  It 
finds  its  place,  however,  in  relatively  few  schools,  only  seven  of  the 
fifty.  In  every  case  it  is  given  in  the  first  year,  either  as  a  whole  or 
a  half  unit.  As  a  half  unit,  it  is  in  one  case,  preceded  by  a  half  unit 
of  elementary  agriculture,  in  the  others,  it  is  the  first  study  of  science. 

GEOLOGY 

Geology  is  a  rare  offering,  appearing  in  but  three  schools.  In  one 
high  school  it  appears  only  with  astronomy  as  an  informational 
subject;  in  the  county  agricultural  schools  it  is  regarded  as  an 
adjunct  to  soils  work,  as  it  well  may  be.  Some  study  of  geology  is 
regularly  made  in  soils  courses. 

BOTANY  AND  ZOOLOGY 

Botany,  usually  as  a  half  unit  preceding  zoology,  appears  nor- 
mally in  the  first  year  of  the  course,  and  rarely  in  the  second  or 
third  year.  It  is  a  common  requirement  appearing  in  twenty-six 
of  the  high  schools  and  ten  of  the  eleven  schools  in  the  other  groups. 
In  three  schools  of  Group  A  and  three  of  Group  B  it  is  differentiated 
as  'Agricultural  Botany'  or  'Farm  Plant  Life',  in  which  case  the 
differentiation  consists  mainly  in  the  selection  of  plants  of  economic 
value,  and  a  greater  emphasis  on  physiology,  than  in  the  usual 
structural  botany  of  the  high  school  texts.  How  crops  grow  is  of 
more  importance  to  the  farmer  than  the  structural  variations  that 
they  exhibit.  How  they  feed  is  more  important  than  the  arrange- 
ment of  leaves  upon  the  stem  or  the  presence  or  absence  of  petals 
in  the  flower.  These  facts  seem  to  be  recognized  in  the  adapted 
courses.  But  such  courses,  as  the  regular  ones,  are  held  to  be 
preparatory. 

Zoology,  in  its  distribution,  is  like  botany,  though  a  less  frequent 
offering.  In  only  two  cases  was  adaptation  definitely  made  for 


The  Course  of  Study — the  Academic  Subjects  65 

agricultural  students.  Its  inclusion  in  two  more  special  schools  as 
'Zoology  of  the  Farm'  brings  the  total  for  those  schools  to  three 
as  against  nine  for  botany.  But  the  adapted  courses  seemed  so 
closely  to  resemble  those  in  economic  entomology  that  they  have 
been  listed  under  that  heading. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 

Physiology  and  hygiene  of  the  usual  text-book  type  was  found 
in  seven  schools.  It  is  equally  common  in  the  first  and  second  years 
and  varies  from  a  full  unit  to  one-fourth  unit  or  less.  The  content 
seemed  to  be  that  of  the  usual  eighth-grade  text.  It  was  the  visi- 
tor's privilege  to  listen  to  three  recitations  and  one  sermon  on  the 
evils  of  drink. 

SANITATION 

Sanitation  as  a  separate  division  appears  in  the  Southern  schools 
and  in  two  of  the  special  schools.  In  three  schools  boys  had  con- 
structed concrete  septic  tanks,  though  in  one  such  case,  no  course 
in  sanitation  was  offered.  In  the  seven  cases  where  it  was  offered 
it  seemed  rather  direct  in  its  application  to  the  farm  home,  even 
when  given  as  'Civic  Biology'. 

PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 

Physics  and  chemistry  are  commonly  offered  as  a  single  unit  each 
in  the  third  and  fourth  years  respectively  of  the  high  school  course. 
In  the  smaller  schools  the  usual  practice,  where  both  subjects  are 
offered,  is  to  give  them  in  alternate  years,  combining  the  work  of 
junior  and  senior  classes.  The  sequence  shown  then,  is  not  strictly 
representative.  It  is  based  upon  the  printed  courses  of  study,  or 
in  the  absence  of  such,  upon  the  actual  succession  in  use  at  the  time 
of  visit.  Physics  is  somewhat  more  common  in  the  high  schools 
than  chemistry,  appearing  thirty-seven  times  as  against  thirty  for 
chemistry.  In  the  special  schools,  physics  appears  six  times  as 
against  nine  for  chemistry.  The  preparatory  view  in  the  special 
schools  is  indicated  by  the  earlier  appearance  in  the  course,  physics 
appearing  four  times  in  the  first  year,  chemistry  six.  Differentia- 
tion into  Agricultural  Chemistry  or  Agricultural  Physics  is  rare  in 
both  groups.  In  some  cases  the  work  was  said  to  be  given  an 
'agricultural  bias'.  It  will  be  noted  that  both  sciences  are  among 
those  most  frequently  in  charge  of  the  teacher  in  agriculture.  But 


66     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

the  'bias*  in  classes  visited  was  imperceptible.  The  usual  state- 
ment was  that  'the  entrance  requirements  forbid  differentiation 
for  agricultural  students'. 

No  record  of  texts  used  was  kept  for  subjects  other  than  agricul- 
ture, but  Millikan  and  Gale's  text,  with  the  accompanying  manual, 
or  some  outline  like  the  "Forty  Harvard  Experiments"  was  in 
common  use  in  physics.  In  chemistry,  the  usual  inorganic  chemistry, 
based  on  Newell  or  a  like  text,  was  the  rule.  In  cases  where  agri- 
cultural chemistry  was  offered,  Kahlenberg  and  Hart  or  Snyder's 
"Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life"  determined  the  content. 
In  agricultural  physics,  King's  "Physics  of  Agriculture"  was  twice 
used.  In  one  case  the  course  could  hardly  be  distinguished  from 
that  in  agricultural  engineering.  Just  what  is  meant  by  agricul- 
tural chemistry,  physics  or  botany  seems  not  yet  to  be  certain  in 
secondary  schools. 

One  specially  ambitious  development  of  chemistry,  from  a  special 
school,  may  be  of  interest.  Elementary  chemistry,  two  terms, 
elementary  agricultural  chemistry,  one  term,  elementary  organic 
chemistry,  one  term,  advanced  agricultural  chemistry,  two  terms. 
It  is  noteworthy,  however,  that  laboratory  work  was  at  a  discount 
in  this  course.  The  instructor  expressed  a  doubt  as  to  the  value  of 
such  work,  except  as  it  were  confined  to  illustrative  demonstration 
in  the  classroom,  in  immediate  conjunction  with  classroom  recita- 
tion or  lecture.  This  man  had  taught  boys  in  the  subject  for  more 
than  twenty  years,  and  had  taken  his  doctor's  degree  in  the  sub- 
ject from  one  of  the  German  universities.  If  laboratory  work  be 
as  remote  from  the  content  of  instruction  as  is  usual  under  the 
manual  and  outline  method,  no  doubt  there  is  some  virtue  in  his 
contention. 

BOOK-KEEPING 

Book-keeping,  usually  in  the  second  year,  and  as  a  half  unit, 
appears  as  a  separate  subject  in  nine  high  schools  and  five  special 
schools.  Seven  times  in  the  high  schools,  and  in  every  instance  in 
the  special  schools,  it  is  adapted  more  or  less  closely  to  farm  condi- 
tions as  'Farm  Accounts'  or  'Vocational  Accounts'.  In  schools 
where  farm  management  is  taught  it  sometimes  becomes  the  major 
work  in  that  subject.  In  schools  where  home  projects  are  a  part  of 
the  agricultural  course  an  accounting  of  productive  projects  is 
invariable.  Thus,  in  a  majority  of  the  schools  visited,  boys  become 
acquainted  through  practice  with  simple  accounting. 


The  Course  of  Study — the  Academic  Subjects  67 

AGRICULTURE  FOR  GIRLS 

Girls  study  agriculture  in  seven  of  the  schools,  six  high  schools 
and  one  special  school.  In  one  county  school  a  first  year  unit  is 
required  of  them,  in  one  Congressional  district  school  three  and 
one-half  units.  A  text-book  in  general  agriculture  and  stereotyped 
recitation  is  the  type.  In  three  cases,  however,  the  material  is 
selected  with  a  view  to  the  supposed  requirements  of  the  home- 
keeper.  Vegetable  gardening,  home  fruits,  poultry  management, 
floriculture,  and  the  care  of  home  grounds,  make  up  the  work, 
which  is  given  to  a  separate  class,  away  from  the  boys.  In  one 
case,  only,  was  there  any  noticeable  amount  of  practical  work. 
In  that  case  every  girl  carried  a  project.  The  class  visited  homes, 
conservatories,  fairs,  poultry  yards  and  orchards,  designed  schemes 
of  ornamentation,  selected  varieties  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  in 
fact,  gave  most  of  the  double  class  periods  in  spring  and  fall  to  out- 
door work.  Yet  the  teacher  reported  the  work  unsatisfactory,  and 
rejoiced  in  the  prospect  of  a  cooking  and  sewing  class  that  should 
remove  the  girls  from  his  jurisdiction.  They  did  not  care  for  the 
practical  work,  he  said,  and  were  at  their  best  in  text  recitation. 

COOKERY  FOR  BOYS 

An  interesting  special  selection  is  that  of  camp  cookery  or  plain 
cooking  for  boys,  during  a  term  in  each  of  two  Wisconsin  county 
agricultural  schools.  The  necessity  for  preparing  his  own  meals  at 
times  is  almost  inevitable  in  the  life  of  a  farmer.  If  anywhere 
selection  of  subject  matter  as  usable  knowledge  appears,  it  is  here. 
A  brief  course  can  hardly  be  out  of  place  in  any  school  that  pre- 
pares for  country  living.  In  another  school  the  boys  had  formed  a 
cooking  club. 

DRAWING 

Drawing  as  a  special  division  of  the  work  of  students  in  agricul- 
ture appears  in  sixteen  schools,  ten  in  Group  A,  and  six  in  Group 
B.  The  arrangement  of  time  for  drawing  is  very  varied,  ranging 
from  ten  periods  a  week  for  a  term  to  a  double  period  a  week 
throughout  the  four  years.  In  eight  cases  drawing  is  continued 
through  two  or  more  years  of  the  course,  in  six  cases  it  is  a  part  of 
the  first  year's  work.  Freehand,  geometrical,  mechanical  drawing 
are  the  common  designations.  One  sequence  runs  thus,  freehand 
drawing,  geometrical  drawing,  mechanical  drawing,  building  plans. 


68     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

In  only  one  case  does  drawing  seem  to  be  given  for  the  sake  of 
drawing.  Correlation  with  shop  work  is  more  or  less  close,  more 
markedly  so  in  the  agricultural  schools  than  in  the  high  schools. 
Drawing,  where  not  a  special  course,  is  regularly  given  with  the 
shop  work,  in  some  cases  the  very  first  drawing  being  the  attempt 
at  working  drawings  for  shop  projects.  Indeed,  in  two  cases  the 
shop  course  seemed  virtually  a  course  in  the  construction  and 
reading  of  working  drawings  rather  than  in  the  use  of  tools.  Said 
one  teacher,  "I  emphasize  the  drawing  and  mathematical  side. 
The  boys  can't  be  made  workmen  here."  In  poultry,  animal  hus- 
bandry, and  farm  management,  some  drawing  is  often  given  in 
connection  with  building  and  farm  plans. 


AGRICULTURAL  SUBJECTS 
ELEMENTARY  OR  GENERAL  AGRICULTURE.    Table  18 

In  all  schools  where  but  a  single  unit  or  half  unit  of  recognized 
Agriculture  was  given,  the  subject  is  a  text-book  survey  of  the 
productive  fields  of  agronomy  and  animal  husbandry.  Outdoor 
and  laboratory  work  play  but  a  small  part.  The  aim  is  'prevoca- 
tional'  if  any.  Warren's  " Elements  of  Agriculture"  and  Mann's 
"Beginnings  in  Agriculture,"  among  the  books  that  give  at  best 
but  a  sketchy  and  inadequate  treatment  to  the  productive  activity 
of  farm  life,  are  favorite  texts.  But  in  four-year  courses  in  which 
the  work  becomes  more  intensive  and  diversified,  the  introductory 
course  is  still  sometimes  identical  with  that  above.  Even  in  the 
agricultural  schools  in  which  the  particular  divisions  of  the  economic 
subjects  prevalent  in  the  agricultural  colleges  have  been  handed 
down  from  above,  the  same  subject  appears  four  times.  The  purpose 
here  is  the  giving  of  'back-ground',  Viewpoint',  or  'conception  of 
the  whole',  in  order  that  the  subsequent  divisions  may  be  seen  in 
their  proper  relations  to  one  another.  Even  in  project  schools, 
where  the  elementary  survey  is  not  countenanced  by  central 
authority,  principals  report  that  they  have  felt  it  necessary  to 
retain  it  in  order  that  the  specific  instances  of  production  may  not 
remain  isolated  in  the  minds  of  pupils,  and  that  the  science  of 
production  from  the  soil  may  have  a  comprehensive  unity.  The 
arguments  are  plausible,  at  least,  though  they  seem  to  presuppose 
the  necessity  for  deductive  treatment.  In  practice  the  subject  is 
perhaps  the  most  academic,  the  experience  involved  the  most 
uniformly  vicarious,  to  be  found  in  the  whole  range  of  the  productive 
topics.  If  a  student  is  to  gain  his  point  of  view,  his  sense  of  unity, 
his  apperceptive  basis  for  more  specialized  work,  in  a  series  of 
lessons  remote  from  the  realities  of  participation,  then  the  first- 
year  survey  is  justified.  On  the  other  hand,  if,  inductively,  through 
the  correlation  of  specific  typical  experiences,  the  unity  and  inter- 
relation of  scientific  principles  is  to  be  attained,  then  the  unifying 
survey,  made  meaningful  by  previous  experience,  would  seem  to 
belong  at  the  end,  rather  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  course.  Such 


7O     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


a  survey  is  made  frequently  in  the  more  or  less  academic  work  of 
Farm  Management  in  the  fourth  year. 

But  several  principals  have  advanced  the  argument  for  general 
agriculture  in  the  first  year,  that  it  is  a  provision  for  the  student 
who  does  not  go  on  to  graduation.  If  he  is  to  leave  school  with  that 
most  important  bequest,  the  proper  viewpoint,  then  it  must  be 
given  him  at  once.  The  question,  then,  becomes  one  as  to  whether 
the  course  given  does  create  the  viewpoint.  In  the  mind  of  the 
writer  it  is  very  doubtful  that  it  does  so.  The  question  as  to  the 
relative  values  of  the  academic  survey  and  of  the  particular  selected 
experiences  of  students,  even  in  a  narrow  field,  if  only  the  one  or 
the  other  can  be  given,  remains  open.  Only  results  as  determined 
in  the  future  life  of  students,  if  by  any  means  we  shall  ever  succeed 
in  eliminating  factors  educational  outside  of  the  school,  can  settle 
it.  Such  results  are  nowhere  available  for  study. 

THE  COMMON  DIVISIONS  OF  AGRICULTURE  IN  THE 
FOUR-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE 

From  examination  of  proposed  four-year  courses  of  study  put 
forward  by  state  educational  authorities  or  agricultural  college 
professors,  in  seventeen  states,  the  figures  of  Table  19  are  put 
together.  The  nine  divisions  of  subject  matter  there  listed  do  not 
allow  of  any  sure  generalizations,  but  combined  with  results  in  the 
following  analysis  may  be,  perhaps,  resolved  into  a  sequence  like 
this  as  a  type: 


Year  I 

Year  II 

Year  III 

Year  IV 

Soils 
Vegetable  Gardening 

Farm  Crops 
Fruit  Growing 

Animal  Husbandry 
Dairying 
Poultry 

Farm  Management 
Farm  Mechanics 

That  the  suggested  outlines  dominate  the  organization  actually 
in  the  schools  is  not  absolutely  proved,  though  the  indications  are 
strong  that  they  do  so.  Under  the  control  given  central  authorities 
by  the  awarding  of  state  aid  such  dominance  is  marked.  In  the 
state  supported  high  schools,  as  in  Alabama,  it  is  absolute,  and 
deviation  to  meet  special  seasonal,  or  pedagogical  needs  is  difficult. 
Elasticity  is  not  a  marked  feature. 


Agricultural  Subjects  71 

AGRONOMY.   Table  20 

The  relations  of  soils  and  crops  as  a  first-  or  second-year  subject 
in  the  high  schools  appears  fourteen  times,  and  twice  in  the  agri- 
cultural schools.  The  name  is  an  inclusive  one,  the  material  studied 
being  largely  that  in  the  courses  specified  Soils,  or  Soil  Management, 
and  Farm  Crops  or  Field  Crops.  That  the  word  has  not  yet  acquired 
a  definite  meaning  seems  to  be  the  case.  Agronomy  and  Soils  occur 
in  the  same  course,  and  Agronomy  and  Farm  Crops  in  the  same 
course.  In  the  one  case  Agronomy  is  the  study  of  crops,  in  the 
other  the  study  of  soils.  The  more  specific  title  Soils  and  Crops  is 
preferable  as  carrying  meaning  to  ordinary  ears,  and  indicating 
even  to  teachers,  the  nature  of  the  course.  The  designation  of  Soils 
twenty-two  times  as  a  separate  topic  and  of  Farm  Crops  twenty-one 
times,  is  a  move  toward  classification.  As  the  monstrous  Zootechny 
has  been  superseded  by  the  plain  English  Animal  Husbandry,  so 
may  the  Greek  give  way  to  the  English  in  this  case  without  loss  of 
dignity. 

SOILS.    Table  20 

Under  the  term  Soils  the  matters  of  origins,  physics,  tillage, 
drainage,  irrigation,  and  manuring,  are  commonly  studied.  All 
these  topics,  save  irrigation,  appear  as  special  subjects  in  agricultural 
schools.  Drainage  is  occasionally  taught  under  agricultural  engi- 
neering or  farm  management.  As  Soils  is  handed  down  from  the 
colleges,  it  is,  in  many  of  its  phases,  one  of  the  most  technical  and 
abstract  of  agricultural  subjects.  The  effect  of  college  presentation 
is  evident  in  much  of  the  school  work,  wherein  teachers  are  attempt- 
ing to  give  to  students  void  of  science  training,  that  which  in  college 
is  of  more  than  ordinary  technological  difficulty.  In  colleges, 
chemistry  is  looked  upon  as  a  prerequisite  to  the  study  of  soils,  but, 
as  has  been  noted,  such  preparation  is  not  provided  for  in  these 
schools.  A  few  schools,  in  recognition  of  the  'needs  of  the  subject' 
have  placed  Soils  in  the  last  year  of  the  course  rather  than  the  first. 
Two  or  three  have  done  so  primarily  for  pedagogical  reasons  that 
will  be  noted  later  on. 

It  is  fair  to  say  that  there  is  in  several  cases  a  definite  attempt  at 
selection  for  first-year  students.  Fortunately,  this  selection  tends 
to  the  emphasis  of  the  physical  aspects  that  are,  after  all,  controlling. 

Taking  all  schools  together  Soils  is  normally  a  half-unit  course, 
though  in  the  high  schools  the  full  unit  is  more  common.  The 


72     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

differentiation  of  the  subject,  particularly  in  the  separate  treatment 
of  manuring,  drainage,  etc.,  probably  accounts  for  the  apparently 
lighter  emphasis  in  the  special  schools.  The  shorter  course  is  a 
factor  also.  Organization  according  to  season  is  not  marked,  or 
need  it  be  in  case  of  Soils,  provided  the  course  carries  over  a  term 
of  open  weather  in  which  outdoor  work  may  be  done. 

FARM  CROPS.  Table  18 

Season  is  an  important  matter  in  any  adequate  study  of  the  crops 
of  the  farm.  To  study  crops  in  the  field  outdoors  is  far  better 
than  to  study  them  only  in  book  and  laboratory.  In  recognition 
of  the  value  of  seasonal  adjustment  Farm  Crops  as  a  half  unit  is 
generally  given  in  the  fall.  As  a  whole  unit  it  runs  through  the 
year  or  begins  in  the  spring  and  is  taken  up  again  in  the  fall.  Thus 
a  study  of  the  plant  at  seed-time  and  at  harvest  becomes  possible. 

Farm  Crops  appears  an  equal  number  of  times  as  a  first  year  and 
as  a  second  year  subject.  Under  the  plan  of  alternation  it  may 
share  with  Soils  as  the  common  introductory  subject  of  the  agri- 
cultural course. 

The  term  Farm  Crops  is  inclusive.  It  may  be  made  to  cover  all 
plant  control  through  agriculture,  and  it  does,  in  some  cases,  include 
vegetable  gardening,  and  even  the  woodlot.  But,  commonly,  the 
orchard  and  small  fruit  crops  and  the  woodlot  are  given  separate 
treatment.  The  usual  content  is  a  study  of  the  cereals,  grasses, 
legumes,  and  root  and  fiber  crops.  Selection  in  view  of  local  con- 
ditions is  not  as  usual  as  it  should  be,  but  is  fairly  common.  The 
Northern  school  boy  usually  studies  cotton,  though  he  does  not 
give  much  time  to  it,  the  New  Englander  may  study  wheat,  and 
the  Alabamian,  oats  at  some  length.  But  selection  is  more  or  less 
defined  in  many  cases. 

No  figures  were  obtained  on  the  visits  to  show  the  amount  of 
time  given  to  various  topics  in  'agronomy',  but  inquiry  as  to  the 
time  given  to  corn,  where  answers  were  definite,  showed  a  wide 
variation.  The  results  of  an  inquiry  by  Professor  Lusk  among 
schools  of  the  single  state  of  Minnesota  show  a  surprising  range  of 
variation.  (See  Table  21.)  To  corn  was  devoted  from  one  to  thirty 
weeks,  with  a  median  allotment  of  eight  weeks,  to  small  grains  from 
one  to  sixteen  weeks  with  a  median  of  eight  weeks,  to  legumes 
from  one  to  twelve  weeks  with  a  median  of  four  weeks,  to  root  and 
fiber  crops  from  one  to  seven  weeks  with  a  median  of  two  weeks, 


Agricultural  Subjects  73 

to  weeds  from  one  to  sixteen  weeks,  median  three  weeks,  to  grasses 
one  to  eighteen  weeks,  median  three  weeks,  to  soils  and  rotations 
one  to  twenty-eight  weeks,  median  four  weeks.  For  corn,  the 
highest  figure  given  in  answer  to  the  question  by  the  writer  was 
twenty-two  weeks,  the  lowest  four  weeks.  That  standardization 
of  time  allotment  is  desirable  is  open  to  question,  but  that  such 
extremes  of  variation  can  be  justified  by  ordinary  local  specializa- 
tion, is  doubtful. 

HORTICULTURE.    See  Table  18 

Horticulture  is  an  inclusive  term  for  the  study  of  certain  rather 
arbitrarily  selected  crops  of  the  farm,  usually  grown  under  a  rather 
more  intensive  culture  and  on  smaller  areas  than  the  staple  crops. 
Apples,  which  are  a  staple  crop,  often  grown  on  large  areas,  and 
by  no  means  intensive  methods,  are,  by  common  consent  and 
tradition  included  among  the  crops  of  the  garden.  Sugar  beets 
and  'mangels'  are  studied  under  Farm  Crops,  table  beets  under 
Horticulture,  potatoes  either  under  Farm  Crops  or  Horticulture,  dent 
and  flint  corns  under  farm  crops,  sweet  corn  and  beans  under  either 
caption  or  both.  Though  the  degree  of  intensity  of  cultivation 
largely  governs  selection,  the  line  between  Farm  Crops  and  Horti- 
culture is  not  determinate.  In  general,  two  groups  of  crops  are 
treated  under  Horticulture,  the  vegetables,  and  the  fruits.  As  an 
undifferentiated  subject  this  general  Horticulture  is  given  as  a  half 
unit  or  less  in  fifteen  schools,  most  commonly  in  the  spring,  but  in 
six  cases  running  through  the  school  year. 

VEGETABLE  GARDENING  AND  FRUIT  CULTURE.    Table  22 

More  common,  however,  than  the  inclusive  caption  is  the  division 
of  the  intensive  crops  into  Vegetable  Gardening  and  Fruit  Growing, 
frequently  designated  Pomology.  Under  the  derived  name  such 
small  fruits  as  strawberries,  raspberries,  blackberries,  etc.,  grouped 
as  small  fruits  and  bush  fruits  have  no  place,  but  they  are  treated 
sometimes  with  Vegetable  Gardening,  more  frequently  with  Fruit 
Growing.  Vegetable  Gardening  is  commonly  a  first  or  second  year 
subject  making  half  a  unit  of  work.  Seasonal  adaptation,  as  is 
fitting,  is  marked,  the  spring  being  the  time  chosen. 

Fruit  Growing  commonly  emphasizes  the  orchard  fruits,  notably 
the  apple.  The  favorite  year  is  the  third,  the  favorite  allowance  one- 
half  unit,  and  the  favorite  season  autumn,  when  varieties  can  be 


74     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

studied.  Occasionally,  as  with  Horticulture  and  Farm  Crops,  the 
cycle  of  growth  is  followed  by  making  the  beginning  of  the  work  in 
the  spring,  the  end  in  the  fall. 

Further  splitting  up  of  Horticulture  is  common  in  the  agricultural 
schools  as  in  the  colleges. 

The  study  of  individual  crops  follows  a  fairly  uniform  plan,  the 
treatment  of  topics  running  something  as  follows :  Botanical  nature 
of  the  crop,  soil  and  climatic  adaptations,  varieties,  methods  of 
propagation,  culture,  enemies,  harvesting,  storage,  and  marketing. 
Emphasis  is  varied,  but  in  general  the  control  factors  dominate. 
It  is,  perhaps,  fair  to  say,  that  with  the  exception  of  fruits,  the 
marketing  side  is  slighted. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  AND  DAIRYING.    Table  23 

The  two  subjects  of  Animal  Husbandry  and  Dairying  commonly 
go  together,  Animal  Husbandry  being  the  inclusive  term.  Where 
it  is  given  alone  a  variable  treatment  of  dairying  is  made,  and  the 
work  includes  a  brief  study  of  Poultry.  When  the  two  are  separated 
the  Animal  Husbandry  usually  treats  of  the  types  and  breeds  of 
farm  animals;  with  the  care  and  feeding  of  each,  and  a  variable 
amount,  usually  small,  of  stock  judging.  The  treatment  of  breeding 
is  necessarily  brief,  if  it  be  heeded  at  all.  When  the  two  are  given 
separately  a  considerable  emphasis  is  given  to  the  study  of  milk 
and  its  products.  For  instance,  Wing's  "Milk  and  Its  Products"  is 
a  more  frequent  guide  in  dairying  than  Eckle's  "Dairy  Cattle" 
or  other  books  on  dairy  farming.  In  such  cases  the  breeds,  feeding, 
and  management  of  dairy  cattle  are  likely  to  be  taken  up  in  the 
Animal  Husbandry  course. 

POULTRY.    Table  23 

The  types  and  breeds  of  poultry,  their  adaptations,  housing, 
care  and  feeding,  hatching,  rearing,  breeding,  and  marketing, 
constitute  a  separate  division  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  fifteen  high 
schools  and  seven  of  the  agricultural  schools.  Practical  work  is 
more  frequent  here  than  in  any  course,  barring  shop  work,  except 
Vegetable  Gardening,  with  which  it  shares  as  the  introductory 
work  of  the  project  schools.  The  frequency  of  its  appearance  in 
the  first  year  is  attributable  to  the  New  York  outline,  but  by  alter- 
nation it  becomes  frequently  a  second  year  subject.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  Poultry  has  been  chosen  as  the  introductory  topic,  in 


Agricultural  Subjects  75 

this  way,  whereas,  in  general,  Animal  Husbandry  goes  into  the  second 
or  third  year,  and  Dairying  into  the  third  year.  Discussion  will  be 
given  to  the  adaptation  further  on.  See  Discussion  of  General 
Applications. 

Still  further  division  of  Animal  Husbandry  is  noted  in  the  agri- 
cultural schools. 

Reference  again  to  the  data  of  Professor  Lusk  shows  a  lack  of 
uniformity  in  time  devoted  to  the  topics  of  the  general  Animal 
Husbandry  course.  As  in  the  Agronomy  it  is  to  be  doubted  that 
local  specialization  in  a  single  state  will  justify  so  great  a  range  in 
intensity  of  treatment.  The  distribution  is  interesting  in  view  of 
the  objection  to  the  Stimson  plan  of  projects  as  tending  to  too 
great  specialization.  The  work  in  Minnesota  is  not  under  the 
Stimson  plan.  To  that  we  shall  advert  in  the  discussion  of  the 
project  method. 

The  time  devoted  to  study  of  the  horse  ranges  from  one  to  eighteen 
weeks,  with  a  median  of  five  weeks;  of  dairy  cattle,  particularly 
important  in  Minnesota,  from  two  to  twenty-four  weeks,  with  a 
median  of  four  weeks;  of  dairy  products  and  management  from 
one  to  twenty-four  weeks,  with  a  median  of  four  weeks;  of  beef 
cattle  from  one  to  nine  weeks,  median  four  weeks;  hogs  one  to 
eight  weeks,  median  four  weeks;  of  sheep  one  to  eighteen  weeks, 
median  three  weeks,  of  poultry  one  to  sixteen  weeks,  median  three 
weeks;  of  feeding  one  to  eighteen  weeks,  median  four  weeks.  A 
normal  course  of  thirty-six  weeks  would  thus  give  to  horses  five 
weeks,  to  dairy  farming  eight  to  ten  weeks,  to  beef  cattle  four 
weeks,  to  hogs  three  to  four  weeks,  to  sheep  two  to  four  weeks,  to 
poultry  two  to  four  weeks,  to  feeding  four  to  five  weeks.  Such  an 
arrangement  is  not  far  from  that  called  for  by  the  ordinary  text- 
book. 

FARM  MANAGEMENT  AND  RURAL  ECONOMICS.    Table  24 

Evaluated  in  terms  of  thought  content,  the  course  in  Farm  Man- 
agement ordinarily  stands  first  among  the  productive  agricultural 
subjects.  Its  problems,  though  for  the  most  part  vicarious  and 
lacking  in  immediate  motive,  most  frequently  call  for  the  arraying, 
selection,  synthesis  and  application  of  facts  and  principles  already 
more  or  less  familiar  to  the  student.  It  serves  to  correlate  and 
organize  the  various  factors  in  production,  and  to  give  that  unity, 
the  seeking  of  which  is  the  excuse  for  the  interpolation  of  elementary 


76     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

General  Agriculture.  Most  of  all,  it  serves  to  the  fixation  of  the 
economic  point  of  view,  whereby  science  becomes  a  means  rather 
than  an  end.  The  interrelations  of  land,  capital,  and  labor,  not  in 
general,  but  in  more  or  less  concrete  instances,  form  the  subject 
matter.  Thus  the  place  of  Farm  Management  is  in  the  last  year  of 
the  course. 

When  it  is  placed  earlier,  it  tends  to  degenerate  into  an  informa- 
tional subject  on  a  par  with  General  Agriculture  or  to  become  a  more 
or  less  systematic  course  in  fictitious  accounting.  This,  even  in 
its  proper  place,  it  too  frequently  becomes,  particularly  in  the 
agricultural  schools.  For  the  content  of  Farm  Management  is  not 
yet  fully  determinate,  as  a  survey  of  publications  will  reveal.  Since 
the  publication  of  Dr.  Warren's  book  in  1913,  the  tendency  has 
been  to  erect  the  subject  into  a  course,  both  in  schools  and  colleges, 
that  is  really  worth  while. 

Not  all  the  high  schools,  even  those  carrying  four  units  or  more, 
teach  Farm  Management,  and  two  of  the  special  schools  omit  the 
division.  The  common  reason  assigned  for  the  omission  is  that: 
"We  do  not  need  it.  We  teach  farm  management  all  the  way  along 
in  connection  with  the  other  subjects."  But  insisting  upon  the 
application  of  principles  to  farm  practice  in  all  subjects  is  not 
teaching  Farm  Management.  Nor  did  it  appear  that  in  schools 
omitting  the  subject  the  concreteness  and  applicability  of  the 
various  subjects  was  one  whit  more  meritorious  than  in  schools 
where  the  distinction  exists. 

Rural  or  Farm  Economics  tends  to  overlap  the  Farm  Manage- 
ment course.  It  is  the  more  inclusive  subject,  dealing  with  economic 
factors  in  their  wider  aspects,  and  tending  to  greater  remoteness 
than  the  Farm  Management  courses.  Land,  labor,  capital,  trans- 
portation, marketing,  cooperation,  accounting,  all  may  enter.  But 
they  enter  as  factors  determining  the  social  life  and  institutions  of 
the  country  rather  than  of  the  individual  farm.  The  larger  aspect 
may  not  be  neglected  in  the  Farm  Management  course,  the  smaller 
may  be  insisted  upon  in  the  Rural  Economics.  It  is  not  always 
possible  to  tell  upon  entering  a  school  room  whether  Farm 
Management  or  Rural  Economics  is  the  general  subject.  Some 
Farm  Management  teachers  make  use  of  Carver  and  Taylor; 
at  least  one  teacher  of  Rural  Economics  makes  Warren  his 
guide. 


Agricultural  Subjects  77 

FARM  MECHANICS  AND  AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING.    Table  24 

In  general,  divisions  of  subject  matter  under  the  captions:  Farm 
Mechanics,  Farm  Machinery,  and  Agricultural  Engineering  have 
been  grouped  together.  The  caption  Farm  Mechanics  is  particu- 
larly without  definition.  The  writer  has  seen  fit  to  list  certain  of 
the  offerings  under  that  caption  with  the  woodwork  and  forge 
work,  when  the  material  studied  seemed  to  indicate  that  the 
conception  of  Farm  Mechanics  was  identical  with  that  of  the  shop 
courses.  The  making  of  farm  conveniences  such  as  knots,  halters, 
and  ties  of  rope,  fences,  gates,  bridges,  farm  and  barn  plans,  may 
be  included  in  the  mechanics  course.  More  often  the  meat  of  it  is 
found  in  the  study  of  the  physics  and  uses  of  farm  machines  and 
powers.  One  offering  might  well  have  been  called  'The  Gas  Engine'. 
Sanitary  piping  and  sanitary  appliances  are  included,  and  as 
Agricultural  Engineering,  surveying  and  drainage.  Thus  the  work 
may  have  a  wide  or  a  narrow  scope  as  is  the  case  with  the  shop 
work.  Certain  high  schools,  where  shop  work  is  offered,  consider 
the  special  division  unnecessary;  among  schools  with  farms  the 
work  of  the  farm  or  the  shop  is  considered  adequate  to  the  treatment 
of  the  material,  and  in  some  cases  it  doubtless  is,  just  as  in  some 
schools  where  no  shop  work,  so  called,  appears  in  the  agricultural 
course,  the  outside  work  calls  for  more  of  construction  and  repair 
than  in  others  where  the  work  is  assigned  a  definite  place,  so,  when 
the  farm  work  is  real,  a  more  adequate  knowledge  of  machinery 
and  its  uses  may  be  obtained  than  in  some  formal  courses.  But 
Farm  Mechanics  is  designated  separately  in  eighteen  high  schools  as 
a  whole  or  half  unit,  and  in  nine  of  the  special  schools.  It  is  com- 
monly placed  near  the  end  of  the  course,  but  may  extend  through 
two  or  three  years  in  the  special  schools. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS  IN  AGRICULTURE 
The  greater  specialization  and  topical  division  of  the  agricultural 

subjects  in  the  agricultural  schools  than  in  the  high  schools  is 

shown  in  the  Tables  25,  26. 

Feeds  and  Feeding  as  a  special  subject  appears  as  a  half  unit  in 

three  Congressional  district  schools,   in  seven  of  the  ten  special 

schools,  and  in  the  preparatory  school.     In  the  special  schools,  it 

appears  in  the  last  year  of  the  course. 

Types  and  Breeds  is  somewhat  less  common  in  the  same  schools, 

usually  preceding  the  Feeding.     As  one-fourth  unit  or  less,  these 


78     Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

specialized  topics  may  not  represent  a  much  more  intensive  treat- 
ment than  is  found  in  the  high  school  division  in  Animal  Hus- 
bandry. 

With  the  topics  of  Breeding  and  Stock  Judging,  the  treatment  is 
undoubtedly  more  complete  than  in  the  high  schools.  The  posses- 
sion of  live  stock  gives  to  the  Stock  Judging  in  particular,  a  more 
satisfactory  basis  than  is  likely  to  be  found  by  even  the  more 
ambitious  teachers  of  the  high  schools  who  make  use  of  neighboring 
farms.  Criticism  is  naturally  more  free,  and  the  correlation  of 
performance  with  the  placings  can  be  more  readily  followed  up. 

Some  study  of  barn  sanitation,  hygiene  of  animals,  and  common 
diseases,  may  make  a  part  of  the  Animal  Husbandry  course.  As 
Veterinary  Science  a  special  division  is  set  off  in  eight  agricultural 
schools,  always  as  one-fourth  unit  or  less. 

Swine  Husbandry  as  one-half  unit  and  The  Horse  as  one-fourth 
unit  appear  in  a  state  school.  Meats  in  one  state  and  one  philan- 
thropic ;  Live  Stock  Practice,  Judging  and  Feeding,  in  one  county 
agricultural  and  one  state  school.  Animal  Management  in  one 
state  and  one  philanthropic  school,  Dairy  Manufactures  in  the 
same  schools,  and  a  study  of  the  broader  problems  of  nurture  and 
heredity  in  a  division  called  Domestic  Plants  and  Animals  in  a 
philanthropic  school.  Special  divisions  in  Poultry  have  already 
been  noted  in  the  description  of  the  state  school. 

Ornamental  and  Landscape  Gardening,  ordinarily  slighted  in 
the  Horticulture  course,  is  definitely  treated  in  seven  schools, 
usually  in  the  spring.  In  two  cases,  it  is  an  intensified  treatment 
of  a  full  unit's  value.  The  two  high  schools  in  which  the  division 
occurs  are  suburban  project  schools. 

Forestry  is  a  required  division  in  the  state-aided  schools  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  appears  as  a  noteworthy  adaptation  to  local 
needs  in  two  New  England  high  schools.  The  placing  in  first  and 
third  years  is  equal,  the  choice  of  spring  as  the  season  clear,  the 
allowance  one-half  unit  or  less,  except  in  the  case  of  the  academy 
previously  described. 

The  study  of  insects  and  diseases  is  in  the  high  schools  usually 
taken  up  along  with  the  particular  crops  which  they  attack,  but 
Insects  may  become  a  special  topic  in  the  agricultural  schools. 
Plant  Pathology  is  given  as  two  and  one-half  units  and  one-fourth 
unit  in  the  second  year  by  one  philanthropic  and  one  state  school. 
Weeds  appears  as  a  one-fourth  unit  in  a  county  agricultural  school, 


Agricultural  Subjects  79 

Bacteriology  as  one-fourth  unit  in  one  state  and  two  philanthropic 
schools,  Sprays  and  Spraying  in  a  state  school. 

Greenhouse  Management  is  given  briefly  in  one  state  school  and 
as  a  half-unit  in  a  philanthropic  school.  Plant  Propagation  or 
Nursery  Work  appears  in  one  country  agricultural  school  and  one 
philanthropic  school,  Small  Fruits  as  a  spring  half-unit  in  a  state 
school  and  as  a  full  unit  in  one  country  agricultural  school,  and 
Floriculture  as  a  whole,  a  half,  and  a  quarter  unit  respectively,  in 
one  state,  county,  and  philanthropic  school.  Bee-keeping  is  given 
in  three  agricultural  schools,  one  of  each  sub-group,  and  is  touched 
upon  in  the  Animal  Husbandry  of  at  least  three  high  schools. 

In  Farm  Crops,  Cereals  becomes  a  special  division  in  one  philan- 
thropic and  one  county  agricultural  school,  Forage  Crops  in  one 
Congressional  district  school,  Root  and  Fiber  Crops  in  one  county 
agricultural  school. 

Soil  Management  is  differentiated  from  the  general  Soils  course 
in  one  county  agricultural  school,  Soil  Physics  in  two.  But  the  most 
frequent  differentiation  is  in  the  case  of  Manures  and  Fertilizers. 
The  division  is  not  here  restricted  to  one  group  of  schools.  (See 
Table  20.)  The  choice  of  spring  as  the  proper  season  is,  perhaps, 
worth  noting,  though  it  seems  to  have  little  or  no  bearing  on 
method. 

Undifferentiated  Political  Economy  of  an  elementary  sort  is  given 
for  a  term  in  one  of  the  county  agricultural  schools.  Rural  Law  as  a 
half-course  appears  in  the  last  year  of  two  town  high  schools.  The 
study  of  rural  institutions  is  made  a  half  unit  in  the  last  year  of 
the  course  in  one  academy  and  one  philanthropic  agricultural 
school. 

On  the  whole,  the  study  of  social  science,  particularly  in  its  coun- 
try aspects,  is  very  much  neglected.  Such  work  as  is  included  in 
Farm  Management  in  some  schools  is  negligible.  It  is  ordinarily 
based  on  the  brief  chapters  in  Warren's  text. 

The  omission  of  this  study  merely  serves  to  reflect  the  emphasis 
upon  production,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  the  agricultural  course. 
Though  economic  independence  is  largely  basic  to  the  betterment  of 
country  living,  success  in  production  alone  will  not  solve  the  rural 
life  problem.  No  need  of  the  country  is  more  marked  than  that  for 
constructive  leadership  and  an  attitude  of  sympathetic  cooperation 
with  its  undertakings  in  the  social  field.  An  increasing  definition 
and  coordination  of  institutional  activities  and  collective  effort 


8o     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

constitutes  social  progress.  That  such  progress  in  church,  school, 
grange,  club,  cooperative  association  is  to  come  in  the  absence  of 
an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  problem  involved,  is  hardly  think- 
able. Some  little  may  be  done  by  good  teaching  in  respect  to  these 
matters  to  affect  attitudes  and  sympathies  among  those  who  are  pre- 
paring to  be  successful  producers  in  the  coming  generation.  Already, 
Rural  Sociology  has  established  itself  as  a  division  of  social  science 
sufficient  in  thought  content  and  usable  values  to  justify  the  incor- 
poration of  its  fundamentals  in  the  course  of  study  of  any  school 
that  pretends  to  prepare  for  country  living.  No  part  of  the  course 
offers  better  opportunities  for  the  development  of  the  'sense  of 
kind'.  Indeed,  so  commonly  is  social  contact  a  felt  need  of  country 
life,  and  its  satisfaction  a  first  motive  to  effort,  that  it  is  remarkable 
that  even  so  isolated  an  institution  as  the  school  can  have  failed  to 
seize  upon  and  use  it.  When  the  nature  of  the  child  and  his  home 
rather  than  'the  nature  of  the  subject'  shall  control,  such  omissions 
will  be  more  rare. 

SHOP  WORK.  See  Table  27 

Perhaps  the  most  difficult  of  all  subjects  to  classify  are  the  divi- 
sions in  Carpentry  and  Forging.  In  some  schools,  where  no  regular 
course  is  given,  the  practical  value  of  work  given  in  repairs  and  con- 
struction on  the  farm  and  about  the  buildings  is  greater  than  in  most 
of  the  formal  courses.  This  is  notably  true  in  the  case  of  the  philan- 
thropic schools  and  of  the  outside  work  of  the  Congressional  district 
schools,  in  only  one  of  which  is  the  formal  shop  work  in  any  wise 
adequate.  Woodwork  is  much  more  common  than  Forge  Work  in 
the  high  schools,  being  definitely  set  off  in  twenty-eight  of  them,  as 
against  Forge  Work  in  nine.  Five  times  the  work  appears  as  un- 
differentiated  formal  process  Manual  Training  for  agricultural  and 
other  students  alike.  In  the  other  cases  work  is  very  variable,  as 
will  be  noted  under  Method.  It  is  usually  first-year  work,  but  may 
be  extended  through  the  full  course.  In  general,  the  agricultural 
schools  with  their  more  complete  equipment  have  developed  more 
elaborate  courses  in  which  the  outcome  is  a  considerable  attainment 
of  skill.  That  their  work  is  more  closely  adapted  to  the  farmer's 
needs,  it  is,  perhaps,  unsafe  to  say.  Schools  under  the  project  plan 
usually  teach  some  woodworking,  whether  it  be  a  recognized  course 
or  not.  Seven  schools  of  Group  B  carry  Woodwork  and  six  Forge 
Work,  the  content  of  which  is  by  no  means  uniform  or  determinate 


Agricultural  Subjects 


81 


in  type.    A  sample  of  organization  of  the  more  complete  sort  is  here 
given.    Further  discussion  is  reserved. 


COURSES    IN    SHOP   WORK    IN   A    PHILANTHROPIC    SCHOOL 


Year  I 

Year  II 

Year  III 

Fall 
Winter  Farm  Shop          6 
Spring   Farm  Shop          3 

Farm  Repair  Shop 
Farm  Repair  Shop 
Farm  Repair  Shop 

6 
6 
6 

Farm  Construction           4 
Farm  Blacksmithing         5 
Farm  Repairs                     3 
Woodwork  and  Black- 
smithing                         3 

That  woodwork  commonly  precedes  forge  work,  and  that  the  type 
unit  is  one-half  appears  in  the  table. 

Concrete  Construction  appears  as  a  definite  subject  in  three 
county  agricultural  schools,  in  one  case  involving  a  full  half  unit. 
The  inclusion  of  the  work  in  concrete  under  Farm  Mechanics,  En- 
gineering and  Shop  in  the  project  schools  is  quite  usual.  As  a  selec- 
tion in  view  of  the  farmer's  needs  it  should  stand  not  far  behind 
carpentry. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF   TIME 

In  so  far  as  agriculture  is  to  be  taught  through  active  participation 
of  the  pupil  in  real  experiences,  it  makes  demands  for  a  larger  allow- 
ance of  time  in  the  daily  program  of  the  school  than  other  divisions 
of  the  curriculum.  In  that  it  involves  undertakings  that  cannot  be 
interrupted  at  the  stroke  of  the  bell,  it  is  like  cooking  or  forge  work  in 
requiring  an  extended  period.  In  that  many  of  the  most  useful  ac- 
tivities, particularly  in  the  high  school,  must  be  carried  on,  if  carried 
on  at  all,  at  some  distance  from  the  schoolroom,  the  demand  for 
freedom  in  time  may  well  be  even  greater  than  in  those  studies. 
Recognition  of  the  necessity  for  special  provision  in  the  matter  of 
time  seems  to  be  growing,  particularly  in  the  state-aided  project  high 
schools.  For  instance,  both  the  New  York  and  the  Massachusetts 
plans  call  for  longer  periods  than  are  given  the  academic  subjects  or 
even  the  sciences.  In  the  one  case  a  double  school  period  every  day, 
in  the  other  a  triple  period  every  day  is  set  apart  for  each  class  in  pro- 
ductive agriculture.  Several  such  schools  have  set  apart  the  half 
day,  free  from  the  demands  of  other  teachers  upon  pupils,  to  be  used 


82     Organization  and  Method  in  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

by  the  teacher  of  agriculture  unhindered.  In  some  schools  where  the 
single  period  still  prevails,  the  agricultural  classes  are  scheduled  for 
the  end  of  the  school  day,  so  that  the  work  may  not  be  restricted 
by  the  necessity  of  getting  back  to  school  in  time  for  the  German 
lesson. 

Arrangements  of  time  for  agriculture  may  be  noted  in  Table  28. 
The  common  length  of  the  school  period  is  forty  minutes.  Eight 
high  schools,  one  preparatory,  and  two  philanthropic  schools,  hold 
to  the  single  period  arrangement,  that  is  probably  the  norm, 
if  all  schools  of  the  country  be  considered ;  five  high  schools  provide 
four  single  periods  a  week,  with  one  double  for  laboratory;  seven, 
three  single  and  two  double  laboratory  periods,  as  with  other  science 
subjects.  This  last  arrangement  is  near  to  those  of  three  state  and 
three  county  agricultural  schools,  which  provide  single  periods  for 
lecture  or  recitation,  double  for  laboratory  or  outdoor  work.  All 
agriculture  periods  are  double  in  sixteen  high  schools,  all  triple  in 
three  high  schools  and  two  special  schools. 

Placing  of  all  agricultural  work  in  the  forenoon  is  made  in  five 
high  schools,  better  still,  in  the  afternoon  in  ten.  Such  adjustment 
is  not  so  necessary  in  the  special  schools  located  on  farms,  and  may 
often  be  impossible  because  of  the  greater  range  of  divisions  in  agri- 
culture and  the  generally  greater  proportion  of  time  devoted  to  it. 

Alternation  of  years,  so  that  two  class-groups  study  together,  as 
has  been  noted  in  the  description  of  schools,  is  the  practice  of  seven- 
teen high  schools.  In  a  course  with  one  teacher,  involving  four  or 
more  units  of  agriculture,  or  requiring  part  time  of  the  teacher  for 
other  duties,  the  arrangement  becomes  a  sine  qua  non  of  success. 
Schools  having  two  or  more  teachers  of  agriculture  do  not  require  it. 
One  high  school  where  three  units  only  have  ever  been  elected  hires 
an  assistant  for  the  teacher  of  agriculture  every  other  year,  and 
maintains  the  printed  sequence. 

Teaching  six  days  in  the  week  is  not  common  even  in  the  special 
schools  with  their  boarding  pupils.  It  is  reported  in  three  cases  only. 


METHOD.   See  Tables  29-30 

General  returns  under  Method  are  given  for  the  classroom,  the 
laboratory,  the  shop,  and  outdoors,  and  in  the  adoption  of  home  and 
school  projects.  Such  returns  are  based  upon  information  from 
principals  or  teachers,  or  both,  in  all  schools,  supplemented  by  some 
reports  from  students  and  by  observation  at  the  time  of  visit.  The 
particular  reports  of  illustrative  lessons  were  taken  in  long-hand  by 
the  visitor. 

CLASSROOM  METHOD 

The  use  of  text-books  was  regular  in  some,  usually  in  all  of  the 
agricultural  subjects,  but  shop,  in  forty-five  of  the  fifty  schools.  Five 
high  schools  did  not  use  regular  texts,  but  made  the  basis  of  recita- 
tion assignment  of  topic  references  in  books  or  bulletins.  Assign- 
ments were  made  to  the  class  as  a  whole  for  recitation,  and  individu- 
ally to  members  of  the  class  for  special  report.  The  class  recitation 
as  heard  under  the  assignment  method  did  not  seem  to  differ  in  pro- 
cedure from  that  in  the  regular  text  classes,  but  the  individual  re- 
ports appeared  to  call  forth  a  rather  more  full  and  critical  discussion 
by  students  than  in  the  usual  case.  Pupils  who  would  not  think  of 
disputing  the  findings  of  a  book  did  not  hesitate  to  differ  with  con- 
clusions stated  by  a  fellow.  For  reports  by  individuals  in  the  class- 
room savor  of  the  personality  of  the  reporter,  whether  original  or  no, 
and,  because  of  that,  lack  the  sacred  odor  of  infallibility  of  the  com- 
mon text.  The  high  school  boy  who  will  question  a  text  is  rare ;  the 
boy  who  will  not  question  a  fellow  student  is,  perhaps,  nearly  as  rare. 

Even  when  the  regular  text  was  the  basis  of  classroom  work  it  was 
supplemented  in  seventeen  of  the  high  schools  by  topic  assignments, 
commonly  in  connection  with  projects.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
project,  the  tendency  to  break  away  from  the  text-book  order  of 
topics  was  common.  In  that  way  the  text  might  be  made  useful  in 
preparation  for  practical  application,  or,  more  rarely,  to  answer 
questions  already  raised  by  participation  of  the  pupil  in  some  pro- 
ject activity. 

The  greater  number  of  teachers  reported  some  minor  departure 
from  the  order  of  the  text ;  a  few  made  the  text  subserve  their  own 


84     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

notions  of  sequence  in  topics.  It  is  not  unfair  to  say  that  the  great 
majority  served  as  media  for  the  interpretation  of  the  text,  rather 
than  as  teachers  who  make  the  function  of  the  text  interpretation 
and  supplementation  of  their  own  teachings.  All  too  commonly  the 
business  of  the  class  was  to  answer  questions  suggested  to  the  teacher 
by  the  text.  Only  rarely  were  text  and  teacher  called  upon  to  answer 
questions  arising  in  the  experience  of  the  pupil.  In  this  the  teaching 
of  agriculture  does  not  differ  from  other  high-school  teaching. 

RECITATION 

As  may  be  inferred  from  the  foregoing,  the  question  and  answer 
method,  by  which  the  teacher  attempts  to  learn  whether  or  no  the 
class  has  read  the  assignment  or  listened  to  the  lecture,  prevails  in 
the  classroom.  Every  school  reported  the  use  of  this  method.  In 
forty-two  schools  it  was  the  major  method  of  procedure  in  the  class- 
room, if  not  the  sole  method.  Twenty-five  schools  used  lectures  in 
addition,  only  two  high  schools,  however,  making  the  lecture  dom- 
inant. In  conformity  with  their  approximation  to  the  college  or- 
ganization, the  use  of  the  lecture  was  common  to  all  special  schools, 
six  of  the  ten  making  it  the  usual,  and  in  the  view  of  directors  and 
teachers,  the  more  important  method  of  classroom  procedure. 

EXHIBITS  OF  QUESTION  AND  ANSWER  METHOD 

The  following  exhibits  may  serve  to  make  more  concrete  the  dis- 
cussion of  classroom  method.  They  do  not  represent  extremes,  but  a 
gradation  from  rather  poor  teaching  to  fairly  good  teaching.  As 
extremes,  perhaps,  two  were  outstandingly  poor.  In  one,  a  recita- 
tion in  animal  husbandry,  the  teacher  took  no  part,  except  to  direct 
the  method.  Every  boy  opened  his  book  to  the  assigned  page. 
Then,  beginning  at  the  right,  a  boy  stood  and  read  aloud  the  first 
paragraph.  When  he  had  finished,  his  next  neighbor  rose  and  re- 
peated, as  nearly  as  he  could  remember,  what  had  been  read.  And 
so  on  through  the  period.  Not  a  question  was  raised,  except  as  to 
pronunciation  of  words,  and  the  class  was  too  drowsy  to  give  much 
heed  to  slips. 

In  another  case  the  activity  was  all  on  the  other  side.  Noticing  an 
extraordinary  rapidity  of  fire  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  the  visitor 
laid  out  his  watch  to  check  off  the  number  of  questions.  At  point 
blank  they  numbered  130  in  twenty-five  minutes.  The  speed  was 
maintained  successfully  by  the  teacher  through  giving  the  answers 


Method  85 

himself.    In  only  three  cases  did  a  pupil  interject  the  necessary  word 
before  the  teacher  could  utter  it. 

At  the  other  end  stands  a  discussion  of  projects  by  a  class,  each 
of  whom  had  chosen  and  made  preparation  for  an  undertaking  at 
home.  He  had  noted  difficulties  and  brought  them  to  the  class  for 
help.  It  was  a  round  table  discussion  conducted  wholly  by  the  boys, 
at  which  the  teacher  sat  merely  as  a  companion.  Threshing  out  led 
to  appeal  to  him  for  confirmation  or  rejection  of  suggestions  in  two 
or  three  cases,  but  his  words  were  brief. 

LESSON   IN  FARM  CROPS 

Topic.    Insects  Injurious  to  Corn 

T.   How  could  you  tell  a  cut  worm  from  a  wire  worm? 

P.    The  wire  worm  is  more  like  a  wire. 

T.    Is  the  body  wall  of  the  wire  worm,  as  compared  with  the  cut  worm,  soft  or 

hard? 
P.    Hard. 

T.    How  does  the  body  look? 
P.    Shiny. 

T.   How  about  the  color  of  the  cut  worm? 
P.    It  is  kind  of  a  dirty  color. 
T.    Did  you  find  out  what  they  are  larva  [sic]  of? 

No  reply. 

T.   Well,  the  wire  worm  is  the  larva  of  the  May  beetle. 
T.   What  is  the  difference  between  a  butterfly  and  a  moth? 
P.    I  think  butterflies  are  generally  more  brittle  than  moths. 
T.    No,  I  don't  hardly  think  there  is  much  difference  in  butterflies.    Let's  have  a 
look. 

He  goes  out  and  brings  in  a  case  of  mounted  Lepidoptera,  which  he  holds 
before  the  class  while  he  describes  the  antenna  of  moths  and  butterflies.  Then 
he  lays  the  case  on  the  desk,  and  draws  on  the  board  the  clubbed  antenna  of  the 
moth.  The  case  is  thenceforth  ignored,  no  pupil  having  looked  at  the  insects 
from  a  closer  range  than  six  feet. 

T.  What  senses  are  in  the  antennae? 

P.  Touch,  hearing,  smell,  taste. 

P.  Where  are  the  nervous  centers  located  in  moths? 

T.  In  the  back.     But  that  is  getting  too  far  away  from  the  subject. 

T.  Where  are  the  eggs  of  the  cut  worm  and  the  wire  worm  laid? 

P.  In  the  ground. 

T.  How  long  will  the  larva  of  the  wire  worm  live  in  a  sod? 

P.  Two  or  three  years. 

T.  Why  isn't  injury  noted  in  grasses  and  small  grains  as  it  is  in  corn? 

P.  Because  there  are  more  plants  and  more  roots  in  the  soil. 


86     Organization  and  Method  in  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

T.  How  about  prevention?     For  cut  worms? 

P.  You  can  make  a  dough  of  meal  and  bran  and  Paris  Green,  and  poison  them. 

T.  Any  other  way? 

P.  Yes.     You  can  plow  them  in,  in  the  fall. 

T.  You  mean  you  plow  them  in  so  deep  they  never  come  up,  don't  you? 

P.  Yes. 

T.  You  haven't  that  very  good,  have  you? 

T.  How  about  the  white  grub? 

P.  It  injures  corn. 

T.  What  is  it  the  larva  of? 

P.  Of  the  May  Beetle. 

T.  That's  right.     It  isn't  the  wire  worm.     I  knew  that.     But  I  said  it  to  see  if 

you  would  notice. 

T.  What  about  the  life  cycle  gives  us  a  chance  to  attack  it? 

P.  You  can  kill  the  grubs  or  you  can  spray  trees  and  kill  the  beetles. 

T.  What  effect  will  what  we  do  for  wire  worms  have  on  the  white  grub? 

P.  Plowing  in  the  fall  helps  some. 

T.  Describe  the  white  grub  for  us. 

After  several  attempts  on  part  of  pupils  he  describes  it  himself. 

T.    (facetiously]   What  use  is  the  white  grub? 

P.    It  makes  good  bait. 

P.   Why  isn't  it  safe  to  put  Paris  Green  on  cabbages? 

T.  Because  the  Paris  Green  works  into  the  cabbage  leaves  and  makes  them  poison- 
ous. 

T.  (turning  page  of  the  text}  How  about  the  root  louse?  How  does  the  root  louse 
produce  injury? 

Pupils  make  numerous  absurd  guesses,  among  them,  these:  They  drink  up 
all  the  water  before  the  corn  can  get  it.  They  dig  the  soil  away  from  the  roots  so 
the  corn  dries  up.  They  call  ants,  and  the  ants  sting  the  corn  to  death. 

The  teacher  closed  the  book,  slammed  it  on  the  desk,  and  proceeded  to  berate 
the  class.  Then  he  gave  up  the  remainder  of  the  period  to  a  talk  on  the  relation 
of  ants  and  aphids,  in  which  he  displayed  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  much 
more  creditable  than  is  revealed  in  the  foregoing  report. 

This  teacher  was  employed  in  a  state-aided  town  high  school  at  a 
salary  of  $1,400.  He  was  a  graduate  of  an  agricultural  college,  born 
and  raised  on  a  farm. 

LESSON  IN  SOILS 
Topic.    Nitrogen 

T.  What  are  the  ways  in  which  Nitrogen  is  lost  from  the  soil? 

P.  By  leaching,  cropping,  erosion,  and  denitrification. 

r.  How  is  Nitrogen  lost  by  leaching? 

T.  What  do  you  mean  by  leaching? 

P.  Rain  water  works  into  the  ground  and  washes  out  the  Nitrogen. 


Method  87 

T.  It  is  lost  through  drainage,  isn't  it? 

P.  Yes. 

T.  What  is  the  difference  between  leaching  and  erosion? 

P.  Leaching  washes  it  through  the  soil;  erosion  carries  it  off  over  the  surface. 

T.  How  is  Nitrogen  lost  by  cropping?  . 

P.  When  you  take  off  a  crop  of  tobacco  and  don't  put  anything  back,  you  lose 

Nitrogen  from  the  soil. 

T.  Do  weeds  take  off  Nitrogen? 

P.  Yes,  unless  you  plow  them  in. 

T.  In  what  soils  does  denitrification  usually  take  place? 

P.  In  poorly  drained  or  poorly  tilled  soils,  where  the  air  can't  get  in. 

T.  What  are  the  different  sources  of  soil  Nitrogen? 

P.  Lime. 

T.  No. 

P.  Kainit. 

r.  NO. 

P.  Nitrate  of  soda,  barn-yard  manure,  sod  and  stubble. 

T.  In  case  you  plant  a  legume,  is  that  a  source  of  Nitrogen? 

P.  Yes. 

T.  Where  does  the  Nitrogen  come  from? 

P.  The  air. 

T.  Then  the  sources  of  Nitrogen  are  manure  and  air,  aren't  they? 

P.  Yes. 

r.  Those  Soy  beans  we  saw  last  week  have  been  plowed  under.    What  did  they 

bring  to  the  soil? 

P.  Nitrogen. 

7\  What  other  crops  couldfyou  plow  under  to  get  Nitrogen? 

P.  Clover,  alfalfa,  cow-peas. 

T.  What  are  some  of  the  commercial  sources  of  Nitrogen? 

P.  Ammonium  sulphate  and  sodium  nitrate. 

T.  What  is  another  name  for  sodium  nitrate? 

P.  Nitrate  of  soda. 

P.  Chile  salt-petre. 

T.  Where  does  it  come  from? 

P.  Chile. 

r.  Any  other  sources? 

P.  Dried  blood. 

r.  How  much  nitrate  of  soda  should  a  farmer  apply? 

P.  Forty  to  sixty  pounds  to  the  acre. 

T,  What  happens  if  he  applies  too  much? 

P.  It  kills  the  crop. 

P.  It  makes  the  soil  hard. 

P.  It  makes  a  kind  of  plaster. 

T.  Is  nitrate  of  soda  very  soluble? 

P.  No. 

P.  Yes. 

r.  What  happens  to  the  soil  if  you  apply  too  much  ammonium  sulphate? 

P.  You  spoil  the  soil  and  kill  the  crop. 


88     Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

P.  It  is  likely  to  make  the  soil  acid. 

T.  What  should  you  apply  with  the  sulphate? 

P.  Lime. 

T.  Where  do  we  get  dried  blood? 

T.  At  the  slaughter  houses,  don't  they? 

P.  Yes. 

T.  About  how  much  should  be  applied  to  the  acre? 

P.  About  200  pounds. 

T.  Isn't  that  too  much? 

P.  I  don't  know. 

T.  Well,  how  much  mixed  fertilizer  is  usually  applied? 

P.  From  300  to  500  pounds. 

T.  Are  there  any  bad  effects  from  applying  too  much? 

P.  It  will  spoil  the  crop. 

T.  Does  it  have  any  bad  effects  on  the  soil? 

P.  No. 

T.  Well,  it  is  very  slowly  available.    It  may  take  two  years  to  do  any  good. 

T.  About  how  many  pounds  of  ammonium  sulphate  shall  we  put  on  an  acre? 

P.  Twenty-five. 

P.  Forty. 

T.  (Advises  frequent  small  applications  of  nitrate  of  sodat  emphasizing  danger  of 
using  too  much.) 

T.  The  answers  came  too  slowly  today.  We  shall  spend  the  next  two  days 
studying  Nitrogen,  and  then  have  a  test.  I  want  you  to  pay  attention  to 
the  five  effects  of  areation,  so  that  if  I  ask  you,  you  can  tell  why. 


LESSON  IN  POULTRY.  DOUBLE  PERIOD 

Topic.   Appliances 
The  following  appeared  on  the  board : 

"Always  in  this  course  before  recitation  outline  the  assignment  before  you  come 
to  class.    Do  this  in  Poultry,  Soils  and  Forestry." 

CONTINUATION   OF   OUTLINE 

Poultry  Appliances 
6.   The  Broody  Coop. 

A .  Defined :  is  a  coop  designed  to  hold  broody  hens. 

B.  Essentials: 

a.  It  must  be  cool. 

b.  It  must  have  plenty  of  light. 

c.  It  must  be  large  enough  to  provide  one  square  foot  o'f  floor  space  for 

every  twenty  hens  in  the  laying  pens. 

(a)  This  varies  with  the  breeds. 

(b)  Should  never  be  less  than  three  square  feet. 


Method  89 


7.  Dust  Wallow. 

A.  Use: 

a.  Keeps  down  lice. 

b.  Gives  some  exercise. 

c.  Hens  like  it;  it  adds  comfort. 

B.  Location : 

a.  Outside  of  house,  so  dust  will  not  be  in  the  house. 

b.  May  be  in  one  corner  of  house. 

C.  Size : 

a.  At  least  four  square  feet  of  dust-wallow  for  every  100  hens. 

D.  Materials: 

a.  Sifted  coal  ashes. 

b.  Ordinary  road  dust. 

8.  Shipping  crates. 

A.  Essential  that  a  crate  be: 

a.  Light. 

b.  Strong. 

c.  Airy. 

B.  Materials: 

a.  Light. 

b.  Strong. 

c.  Cheap. 

9.  Chick  Shipping  Box. 

A .  Should  be  comparatively  tight — only  air  enough  to  keep  chicks  going. 

B.  Box  no  higher  than  the  chicks. 

C.  Not  more  than  fifty  in  a  box. 
10.   Dropping  Board  Platform. 

A .  Advantages : 

a.  Keeps  house  much  cleaner. 

b.  Gets  droppings  in  pure  form. 

c.  Decreases  air  space  around  birds — keeps  them  warmer  in  winter. 

d.  Decreases  drafts  on  birds. 

B.  Disadvantages: 

a.  Costs  more  money. 

b.  Requires  more  labor. 

C.  Arrangement:  run  the  boards  from  front  to  back. 

D.  Cleaning  hoe:  ordinary  broad  hoe  with  board  attached. 
iz.   Fattening  Coop:  used  especially  for  fattening  cockerels. 

A .  a.  It  should  be  airy. 

b.  Room  along  front  for  all  birds  to  eat.    Prevents  fighting. 

c.  Put  only  ten  birds  in  a  coop. 

B.  Construction: 

a.  Wire  netting  stretched  over  board  floor. 

12.  Trolleys. 

A.  Make  it  of  barn  door  track  and  rollers. 

B.  Be  sure  you  want  it  before  you  install  it. 

13.  Catching  hook. 


9O     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

RECITATION 

T.   What  were  we  talking  about  last  time? 
P.    Inside  devices. 

T.   Well,  we  are  going  to  start  some  chicks  after  Christmas.    What  are  you  going 
to  have  for  a  chick  feeding  device? 

Every  boy  had  a  suggestion  or  a  reason  for  or  against  one  device  or  the  other. 
Boys  stood  and  addressed  the  class,  not  the  teacher. 

T.   What  did  you  decide  was  the  best  watering  device? 

Discussion  indicated  agreement  on  fountains. 
T.   Why  would  you  rather  have  an  earthen  than  a  galvanized  fountain? 

Argument  again,  with  most  boys  favoring  the  earthenware  as  more  durable 
and  more  easily  cleaned,  and  less  easily  upset.  Objections  were  that  the  earthen- 
ware is  more  expensive,  heavy  to  handle,  and  not  easily  mended  when  broken. 

T.   Where  did  you  see  a  running  water  system? 

One  boy  describes  the  system  on  a  plant  visited  by  the  class  and  several  de- 
scribe systems  that  they  have  seen. 

T.   Now,  remembering  you  have  to  keep  under  a  dollar  a  hen,  what  do  you  think 
of  the  barrel  method? 

Here  followed  a  prolonged  and  animated  argument  on  the  barrel  method 
versus  a  piping  scheme. 

T.   What  feeding  devices  have  we  considered? 

Boys  name  several  types  of  hoppers,  fetching  them  out  for  inspection. 
T.   What  do  you  think  of  the  dry  mash  hopper? 

Most  regarded  it  as  a  great  convenience,  but  one  criticized  it  as  unsanitary. 
T.   What  are  some  of  the  essentials  of  an  egg  crate? 

Boys  list  desirable  properties. 
T.    (Producing  patent  pasteboard  egg  crate)   Well,  what  do  you  think  of  this? 

Criticism  interested  and  intelligent. 

Here  the  teacher  felt  it  necessary  to  complete  the  assignment  promptly  and 
turned  to  the  board.  The  boys  sagged  into  their  seats  to  answer  with  mechanical 
promptness,  often  by  literal  reading  of  the  blackboard  outline,  a  long  series  of 
questions  like  the  following: 

T.  What  do  you  mean  by  a  broody  hen? 

P.  A  hen  that  wants  to  hatch  chicks. 

T.  Is  it  natural  for  all  hens  to  want  to  hatch  chicks? 

P.  Yes,  but  some  breeds  don't.    White  Leghorns,  for  instance. 

T.  What  is  a  broody  coop? 

P.  A  coop  designed  to  hold  broody  hens. 

T.  What  are  its  essential  features?     Etc. 


Method  9 1 

LESSON  IN  FARM  ARITHMETIC 

Topic.    Commercial  Fertilizers 

Lesson  began  with  the  assignment  of  eight  problems  in  the  text  for  the  follow- 
ing day.  Then  followed  rapid  fire  questions,  such  as  are  reported,  with  indicated 
replies,  given  for  the  most  part  promptly  and  in  interested  fashion. 

T.  What  fertilizer  materials  did  you  see  yesterday? 

P.  Tankage,  dried  blood,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate, 

ground  rock,  bone,  dried  fish,  muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  potash,  kainit, 

wood  ashes,  cotton  seed  meal. 

T.  What  would  you  be  feeding  your  plants  if  you  put  on  nitrate  of  soda? 

P.  Nitrogen. 

T.  Why  is  this  a  good  form  of  nitrogen  to  use? 

P.  Because  the  plant  can  use  it  right  away.    It  is  soluble. 

T.  Do  you  remember  how  Dried  Blood  appeared? 

P.  It  was  a  fine  blackish  powder. 

T.  What  does  it  come  from? 

P.  The  slaughter  houses  in  Chicago. 

T.  Where  else? 

P.  Buffalo  and  Omaha. 

T.  Where  would  you  go  to  get  it? 

P.  To  the  men  who  have  it  for  sale. 

T.  Well,  who  are  the  men  who  have  it  for  sale? 

T.  Why,  where  would  you  get  it  in  your  home  town? 

T.  Who  has  it  for  sale  here? 

T.  (Stops  to  explain  the  distribution  through  wholesalers,  jobbers,  grocers  and  grain 

dealers.) 

T.  What  would  you  be  putting  on  the  land  when  you  add  blood? 

P.  Blood. 

P.  Nitrogen. 

T.  What  per  cent,  of  blood  is  nitrogen? 

P.  About  ten  per  cent. 

T.  Does  it  vary  considerably? 

P.  Yes. 

T.  What  else  do  you  remember  from  the  lot  yesterday? 

P.  (Gives  list  again.) 

T.  Which  ones  furnish  phosphoric  acid? 

P.  Acid  phosphate,  rock  phosphate,  bone,  fish,  tankage. 

T.  Which  ones  furnish  potash? 

P.  Muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  potash,  wood  ashes,  kainit,  cottonseed  meal. 

T.  Now,  what  do  we  call  these  things? 

P.  Fertilizers. 

T.  Every  one  of  them  contains  quantities  of  what  kinds  of  materials? 

P.  Dry  materials. 

P.  Plant  foods. 

T.  What  do  we  call  them,  then? 

P.  Plant  food  carriers. 


92     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

T.  Now,  go  to  the  board,  David,  and  give  us  the  shorthand  for  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash. 

P.    (Writes}    N.,  K2O,  P2O. 

T.    Can  you  give  shorthand  for  nitrate  of  soda  and  for  ammonia? 

P.    (Writes}    Na  NO3,  N  H3. 

T.    What  does  that  shorthand  tell  you? 

P.    Nitrate  of  soda  has  nitrogen  in  it,  ammonia  has  nitrogen  in  it. 

T.   Anything  else? 

P.    Yes,  nitrate  of  soda  has  sodium  in  it  and  oxygen;  ammonia  has  hydrogen. 

T.    Now,  has  the  farmer  got  to  think  about  chemistry? 

P.    Yes. 

T.  (Hangs  up  a  bag  of  Essex  Complete  Manure,  empty,  so  that  the  printed  guarantee 
is  plain.}  Now,  tell  me  what  that  means.  (By  means  of  rather  skilful  ques- 
tioning he  elicits  a  very  creditable  interpretation.} 

T.  Now,  find  out  what  you  buy  when  you  buy  a  bag  of  that.  (Boys  spend  about 
ten  minutes  in  figuring  the  pounds  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash 
in  the  bag.} 

T.  Now,  John,  you  can  tell  me  what  you  know  about  that  bag.  Harry,  David, 
et  al. 

Boys  make  very  creditable  summaries. 

T.  Isn't  it  fine  to  be  able  to  read  bags,  and  to  know  that  the  fertilizer  man  can't 
take  your  money  away  from  you? 

LESSON  IN  FARM   MANAGEMENT 

T.   What  would  you  do  in  case  of  failure  of  a  seeding  in  a  rotation? 

P.    Plow  and  seed  again. 

T.   What  effect  would  that  have? 

P.    It  would  halt  the  rotation  and  upset  plans. 

T.   Which  would  be  more  difficult,  a  rotation  on  equal  fields  or  one  on  unequal 

fields? 

P.   A  rotation  on  unequal  fields. 

T.   Would  there  be  any  advantage  in  rotation  under  these  conditions? 
P.   Yes.     You  would  stand  a  better  chance  of  hitting  the  market  somewhere 

every  year. 
T.   Go  to  the  board  and  work  out  a  rotation  for  a  i6o-acre  farm,  calling  for 

eighty  acres  of  wheat,  forty  acres  of  hay,  twenty  acres  of  corn,  and  twenty 

acres  of  potatoes. 

The  results  varied  somewhat.  Plans  were  criticized  in  order  by  the  class  in 
rather  shrewd  fashion;  then  a  summary  criticism  in  which  practical  difficulties 
were  emphasized  was  made  by  the  teacher. 

T.   Can  you  have  a  five-year  crop  rotation  on  less  than  five  fields? 
P.   No. 
T.   Why  not? 

P.  It  is  possible  to  grow  more  than  one  crop  on  a  field  in  a  season,  but  at  least 
one  crop  must  be  grown. 


Method 


93 


T.  Work  this  out:  On  a  seventy-five  acre  farm,  plan  to  take  off  twenty-five  acres 
in  buckwheat,  twenty-five  acres  potatoes,  twenty-five  acres  of  oats,  and 
twenty-five  acres  of  clover  every  year. 


A  pupil's  plan: 


1915 

1916 

1917 

Clover 
Buckwheat 

Potatoes 

Oats 

Oats 

Clover 
Buckwheat 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Oats 

Clover 
Buckwheat 

Part  of  Criticism: 

T.  How  do  you  provide  for  organic  matter? 

P.  By  plowing  under  clover. 

T.  Would  you  plow  under  a  good  crop  of  clover? 

P.  No.   I  would  cut  the  first  crop  and  plow  under  the  second. 

T.  Where  would  you  get  in  your  buckwheat  under  that  scheme? 

P.  I  couldn't  get  it  unless  I  followed  oats. 

T.  When  would  you  seed  the  clover? 

P.  I  might  seed  in  the  spring  but  that  would  not  be  so  good. 

T.  How  often  do  you  remember  cutting  a  second  crop  of  clover  round  here? 

P.  It  is  not  very  often  that  you  can. 

T.  Can  you  carry  two  rotations  on  the  same  farm? 

P.  Yes. 

T.  Give  an  illustration. 

P.  Corn,  oats,  wheat,  hay  and  beans,  wheat,  clover,  potatoes. 

T.  What  advantages  in  wheat  after  beans? 

P.  The  land  is  clean,  you  have  time  to  get  in  the  wheat  after  harvest,  and  the 

beans  bring  some  nitrogen  to  the  soil, 

r.  Work  this  out: 

A  New  York  farmer  has  100  acres.  Figure  a  rotation  growing  five  acres 
of  potatoes,  five  acres  of  beets,  five  acres  of  corn,  twenty  acres  of  oats, 
twenty  acres  of  wheat,  twenty  acres  of  clover,  twenty  acres  of  timothy. 

T.   How  many  fields  do  you  need  for  that  rotation? 
P.   Five. 


Plans  again  subject  to  class  criticism. 


94     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

T.   What  objection  is  there  to  putting  wheat  on  grass  land? 

P.   The  grass  feeds  in  the  same  way  as  the  wheat.    Then  sod  is  a  little  loose  for 

wheat. 
T.   What  are  some  of  the  benefits  of  a  rotation? 

Pupil  recites  text  list  in  order, 

T.  What  relation  does  a  cropping  system  have  to  a  feeding  system? 

P.  Don't  know  what  you  mean. 

T.  Think  it  over  a  minute. 

P.  You  have  got  to  provide  for  forage  in  planning  your  rotation,  and  what  you 

feed  will  make  a  difference  in  the  value  of  the  manure. 

r.  Why  is  it  we  have  so  many  one-crop  systems  in  this  country? 

P.  Because  the  country  is  new,  and  one  crop  usually  pays  better  than  any  other 

in  the  different  states. 

r.  What  is  the  principal  crop  of  the  South? 

P.  Cotton. 

T.  Why? 

P.  It  pays  best. 

T.  What  is  the  principal  crop  of  New  York? 

P.  Hay. 

T.  Why? 

P.  It  pays  most  for  labor. 

T.  Of  Minnesota? 

P.  Wheat. 

T.  Why? 

P.  Same  reason. 


EXAMINATIONS 

No  data  were  gathered  with  respect  to  the  frequency  of  exami- 
nations, 'quizzes',  or  'tests'.  Term  or  quarterly  examinations 
seemed  to  be  the  rule.  In  addition,  a  number  of  teachers  stated 
that  it  was  their  custom  to  have  a  'quiz'  at  the  'completion'  of 
every  topic.  Several  lecturers  said  'every  two  weeks',  and  at  least 
one  'every  week'.  That  is,  regular  examinations  were  held  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  the  school,  additional  examinations  in  accord 
with  the  notions  of  the  individual  teacher. 

Whether  the  examination  be  looked  upon  as  a  means  whereby  the 
teacher  may  check  his  own  work  or  the  work  of  his  pupils,  or  as  a 
method  of  teaching;  whether  it  be  a  test  of  memory  or  a  means  to 
organic  thought,  it  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  show  forth  that 
content  which,  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  is  of  most  importance. 
That  is,  it  reveals  a  selection  of  material  more  discriminating  than 
that  of  the  ordinary  recitation.  Further,  if  it  be  a  means  to  teach- 


Method  95 

ing,  it  should  reveal  the  ability  of  the  teacher  to  stimulate  thinking, 
to  question. 

Several  specimens  of  examinations  are  submitted  for  study.  The 
form  of  the  question  is  relatively  easy  to  judge,  though  in  the  ab- 
sence of  knowledge  of  teaching  developments  in  the  respective 
classes,  it  is  not  possible  to  give  an  absolute  value  to  any  question, 
with  regard  to  its  thought-producing  properties.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  difficult  to  precipitate  the  criteria  of  selection,  if  definite 
standards  do  exist.  In  topics  dealing  with  productive  agriculture 
it  seems  reasonable  to  judge  that  one  such  criterion  should  be 
control.  Knowledge  on  the  productive  side  may  be  evaluated  in 
terms  of  its  usability  in  control  of  racial  and  individual  growth  in 
plants  and  animals.  Conventional,  cultural,  and  preparatory 
evaluation  may  also  be  made.  That  definite  standards  for  the  se- 
lection of  material,  other  than  that  of  reproducing  a  skeletal  replica 
of  the  text,  do  prevail,  appears  doubtful.  In  so  far  as  text  selection 
is  just,  and  no  such  selection  can  always  be  just  in  varying  localities 
and  groups,  the  class  is  fortunate. 

EXAMINATION  IN  FARM   CROPS 

1.  Give  the  Latin  name  for  oats. 

Give  the  names  and  pedigrees  of  Wisconsin  oats. 
Name  as  many  other  varieties  as  possible. 

2.  Name  the  five  leading  oat-producing  states. 

What  place  does  Wisconsin  occupy? 

What  part  of  the  world's  supply  does  the  United  States  produce? 

3.  Give  the  time,  rate,  and  best  method  of  seeding  oats. 

4.  Should  we  manure  oat  ground?    If  so,  when,  and  how  much? 

5.  Give  all  the  uses  of  oats. 

BOYS'    PAPERS   IN   EXAMINATION   ON   FARM   CROPS 

A 

1.  The  Latin  name  for  oats  is  Venus  Setivia. 

The  pedigree  names  for  oats  are  Wisconsin  wonder  or  pedigree  no.  I .  Swedish 
select,  or  pedigree  no.  5;  and  the  sixty-day  oats.  Other  varieties  are:  rust- 
proof. 

2.  The  five  leading  oat-producing  states  are  Iowa,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Nebraska 

and  Minnesota.    Wisconsin  ranks  third  in  amount  of  oats  raised. 
The  United  States  produces  about  one-half  of  the  total  amount  produced  in 
the  world. 


96     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

3.  The  time  of  seeding  oats  around  here  is  the  latter  part  of  April. 

The  rate  is  two  to  three  bushels  to  the  acre. 

The  best  method  of  seeding  oats  is  with  the  drill  which  gets  the  oats  in  all 
about  the  same  depth  and  more  evenly  sown.  Sometimes  it  is  sown  broad- 
cast, which  is  a  poor  method  because  the  oats  are  sown  too  unevenly. 

4.  Oat  ground  should  not  be  manured  the  same  year  that  it  is  planted  except 

with  the  crop  residues  because  the  ground  is  too  rich  and  the  oat  will  lodge. 
The  crop  planted  previous  to  oats  should  be  manured   but   not  the  oat 
ground. 

5.  The  uses  of  oats  are  mostly  for  horses  or  working  animals  because  it  is  a 

muscle-producing  food;    it  is  also  used  for  human  food  and  for  chickens 
and  mixed  with  swill  for  hogs.  It  is  also  good  for  all  kinds  of  growing  animals. 
The  straw  is  used  for  bedding  although  it  is  a  very  good  roughage. 

B 

1.  Swedish  select  or  pedigree  No.  5. 

Pedigree  No.  I  or  Wisconsin  Wonder. 

Sixty-day  oat  not  pedigree.    Other  varieties  are  Big  Four. 

2.  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Missouri. 

Wisconsin  has  first  place. 

United  States  produced  about  all  the  oats,  or  two-thirds. 

3.  The  time  to  plant  is  the  last  half  of  April  or  early,  if  good  year;  later,  if  poor 

year;  two  to  three  bushels  should  be  planted  the  acre.  The  best  method 
of  seeds  is  driller  and  checker. 

4.  We  should  not  manure  oat  ground  unless  it  is  necessary,  because  it  makes  the 

soil  too  rich.  It  should  be  manured  a  year  before,  or  if  the  manure  should  be 
well  rotted  when  put  on  the  oat  land,  very  little  should  be  put  on  an  oat 
field. 

5.  Oats  are  used  as  food  for  working  horses,  growing  horses,  dairy  cows  and  pigs. 

When  ground,  for  food  for  people,  as  oat  meal. 

EXAMINATION  IN  SOILS 

1.  Name  in  order  of  importance  the  chemical  elements  necessary  for  plant 

growth.     Which  are  apt  to  become  exhausted? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  osmosis  and  what  is  its  relation  to  plant  growth? 

3.  Name  the  conditions  for  germination  and  for  plant  growth. 

4.  Define  the  term  soil.    What  is  meant  by  the  physical  make-up  of  the  soil? 

Describe  a  method  of  soil  analysis. 

5.  Name  three  classes  of  rocks  and  tell  what  is  meant  by  the  names. 

What  is  meant  by  a  rock- forming  mineral? 

Name  four  different  classes  of  soils  with  respect  to  origin. 

6.  How  are  soil  and  subsoil  distinguished? 

7.  What  is  nitrification?    What  conditions  are  necessary  to  the  process? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  nitrogen  fixation? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  soil  inoculation? 


Method  97 

EXAMINATION  IN  AGRONOMY 

1.  Does  each  element  which  we  eat  have  a  duty  to  perform  in  the  body? 

2.  Does  each  element  taken  up  by  the  plant  have  a  duty  to  perform  for  the  plant? 

3.  Can  one  element  be  substituted  for  another? 

4.  Which  contribute  most  towards  the  material  of  the  plant,  air-  or  soil-derived 

elements? 

5.  Name  four  things  which  make  nitrogen  of  so  much  interest  agriculturally. 

6.  What  is  the  effect  of  nitrogen  upon  foliage? 

7.  What  crops  benefit  by  the  use  of  large  amounts  of  nitrogen? 

8.  What  is  the  effect  of  nitrogen  upon  the  flowering  process? 

9.  What  is  the  effect  of  nitrogen  upon  the  maturing  of  plants? 

10.  What  is  the  effect  of  nitrogen  upon  the  color  of  plants? 

11.  What  is  the  effect  of  nitrogen  upon  the  resisting  power  of  plants? 

12.  What  is  the  effect  of  nitrogen  upon  general  all-round  growth? 

13.  What  is  the  effect  of  phosphorus  upon  the  germination  of  the  seed? 

14.  What  is  the  effect  of  phosphorus  upon  the  maturing  of  a  crop? 

15.  What  is  the  effect  of  phosphorus  upon  the  relative  amounts  of  straw  and 

grain? 

1 6.  What  is  the  effect  of  potassium  upon  the  formation  of  carbohydrates? 

17.  What  is  the  effect  of  potassium  upon  stems  and  leaves? 

1 8.  What  is  the  effect  of  potassium  upon  resistance  to  disease? 

19.  What  is  the  effect  of  potassium  upon  leguminous  crops? 

20.  What  is  the  effect  of  calcium  upon  the  root-hairs? 

21.  What  is  the  relation  of  sulphur  to  plant  proteins? 

22.  What  is  the  action  of  carbon  in  plants? 

23.  What  is  the  action  of  oxygen  in  plants? 

EXAMINATION  IN  POULTRY 

1.  25  wts.    Define  breed,  variety,  strain,  single  comb,  rose  comb,  cock,  cockerel, 

hen,  pullet,  barring,  penciling,  squirrel-tail. 

2.  50  wts.    a.  Starting  with  head,  name  the  parts  of  the  hen's  body. 

b.  Describe  the  characteristics  of  the  parts  you  associate  with  vigor 
and  egg  type. 

3.  25  wts.   a.  From  what  country  and   how  were  the  Leghorns  brought  to 

America? 

b.  They  originally  came  from  what  type  of  native  fowl  now  found  in 

India? 

c.  Name  five  economic  qualities  of  the  Leghorn  fowl  that  has  made 

it  popular  in  America. 

EXAMINATION  IN  POULTRY 

1.  Draw  a  plan  for  a  poultry  house  for  100  hens. 

2.  Make  a  bill  of  lumber  for  the  house. 

3.  Draw  a  sketch  of  a  hen  and  indicate  the  parts  of  the  body. 

4.  What  points  would  guide  you  in  selecting  fowl  for  egg  production? 


98     Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

EXAMINATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

1.  (10)   Tell  the  uses  the  plant  makes  of: 

a.  Roots,     b.  Leaves,     c.  Flowers. 

2.  (TO)  What  are  the  three  parts  to  a  seed,  and  tell  the  use  of  each. 

3.  (10)  Where  should  a  farmer  get  most  of  his  seed  for  planting? 

4.  (10)  In  sowing  wheat,  why  is  drilling  preferred  to  broadcasting? 

5.  (10)  What  are  four  conditions  necessary  to  secure  a  good  crop  of  corn? 

6.  (10)  Why  discard  the  tips  and  butts  in  preparing  seed  corn? 

7.  (10)  Explain  fully  how  a  white  kernel  may  appear  on  a  yellow  ear. 

8.  (10)  Why  is  a  cylindrical  ear  of  corn  better  than  a  tapering  one? 

9.  (10)  How  should  corn  be  selected  and  stored? 
10.  (10)  How  should  seed  corn  be  tested? 

LECTURES 

The  lecture  method  of  presentation  of  subject  matter  is  common 
to  thirty-five  of  the  fifty  schools.  It  seems  to  be  a  direct  conse- 
quence of  the  agricultural  college  training  of  teachers.  Two  direc- 
tors in  special  schools  reported  that  thus  far  all  efforts  on  their  part 
to  eliminate  lecturing  had  been  unsuccessful.  The  teachers  felt 
that  the  one  way  in  which  they  could  unify  and  make  clear  the 
various  topics  of  the  agricultural  course  was  by  lecture.  Con- 
sequently a  repetition,  in  more  or  less  perfect  form,  of  the  instruction 
of  their  college  days  to  their  adolescent  pupils,  was  frequent.  The 
purpose  seemed  to  be,  commonly,  not  the  imparting  of  information 
that  is  unavailable  in  text  or  reference,  but  a  formal  assembling  of 
facts. 

However,  the  lectures  heard  were  very  variable  in  form  and  in 
interest.  There  was  the  slow  dictation  from  the  typewritten  page, 
the  formal  elaboration,  head  by  head,  of  carefully  systematic  notes, 
the  inspirational  sermon,  the  off-hand  and  often  unorganized  dis- 
course. So  far  as  the  judgment  of  the  visitor  may  be  trusted,  these 
last  seemed  of  most  interest  and  value.  Perhaps  the  reason  lay  in 
the  type  of  men  who  undertook  such  a  proceeding.  These  were  the 
men  who  knew  the  subject  first-hand,  who  constantly  cited  illus- 
trations of  a  concrete  nature,  who,  if  not  always  providing  new 
information,  yet  reviewed  from  a  new  angle  the  material  to  be  found 
in  books.  The  less  experienced  men  were,  on  the  whole,  apparently 
more  careful  and  less  interesting,  for  the  reason  that  they  recited 
rather  what  they  had  heard  or  read,  than  what  they  had  seen  or 
done.  In  their  formal  presentation,  too,  they  were  less  tolerant  of 
and  less  subject  to  questions  and  interruptions  by  the  class.  The 


Method  99 

greater  concreteness  and   the   personal   touch   of  the   less   formal 
'talk'  led  to  more  frequent  questioning  and  even  argument. 

The  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter  displayed  in  the  lectures  was, 
on  the  whole,  very  creditable.  Only  one  man  among  those  listened 
to,  ventured  to  expatiate  at  length  upon  what  he  did  not  know. 
He  preached  a  sermon  upon  the  evolution  of  plants  and  animals 
that  was  amazing  in  its  vigor  and  inaccuracy.  In  the  special  schools 
several  of  the  lectures  were  of  a  first-class  order.  Yet  for  the  most 
part,  the  activity  of  pupils  in  these  classes  consisted  in  scribbling 
notes  at  top  speed. 

SUPERVISED  STUDY 

Provision  for  supervised  study  in  the  class  period  was  made 
definite  in  seven  schools.  Just  what  attempt  is  ordinarily  made  to 
help  students  to  study  in  this  period,  it  is  hard  to  say.  One  teacher 
spent  the  time  set  apart  for  study  in  completing  his  lecture,  another 
in  a  continuation  of  questions  upon  the  text.  Two  sat  down  at  their 
desks  and  left  the  class  to  its  own  devices.  One  assigned  the  writing 
of  a  brief  composition  upon  'Farm  Yard  Manure',  and  gave  his 
time  to  aiding  in  organization.  He  moved  from  boy  to  boy,  asking 
"Now,  what  are  the  heads  you  are  going  to  make?  Which  do  you 
think  are  most  important?"  etc.  Then,  as  sheets  were  completed, 
he  read  them  critically,  saying,  "Now,  why  do  you  say  that? 
Couldn't  you  state  that  a  little  more  clearly?"  and  the  like.  Two 
others  distributed  question  outlines  for  projects,  and  stood  by  to 
give  aid  in  explanation.  Both  were  kept  busy  by  the  boys. 

THE  ROUND-UP 

A  practice,  reminiscent  of  the  agricultural  college,  and  suggestive 
of  the  farmers'  institute,  was  reported  in  some  half  dozen  schools. 
This  is  the  setting  apart  of  a  period  weekly,  fortnightly,  or  monthly 
for  report  and  discussion  of  topics  treated  in  farm  papers  or  other 
publications.  The  possibilities  for  constructive  organization  and 
real  teaching  are  considerable  under  the  plan.  But  the  work  seen 
in  the  two  cases  of  such  meetings  attended  by  the  visitor  was  dis- 
tinctly disappointing.  In  neither  case  was  there  any  central  topic 
for  discussion,  any  problem  to  be  solved.  The  boys  had  chosen 
haphazard  from  publications  in  the  library,  and  reported  verbally, 
or  read,  the  contents  of  the  article  of  their  choice.  In  neither  case 
did  any  serious  discussion  arise,  nor  was  any  original  contribution 


loo   Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

put  forward.  But  a  more  sustained  effort  at  self-expression  than 
is  usual  in  the  classroom,  and  an  actual  contact  with  new  sources 
of  information,  did  result. 

The  haphazard  nature  of  the  program  is  suggested  by  the  follow- 
ing: 

TOPICS   REPORTED   ON  AT  A    'ROUND-UP* 

1.  Rainfall. 

2.  Silos. 

3.  Poem,  'The  Lazy  Farmer'. 

4.  Rabbits  as  an  Orchard  Pest. 

5.  The  Oregon  Agricultural  College. 

6.  The  Production  of  'Hot  House  Lambs'. 

LABORATORY  METHODS.   See  Table  29 

In  the  laboratory  in  Soils,  Agronomy,  or  Farm  Crops,  the  follow- 
ing of  a  series  of  set  experiments  by  direction  of  a  printed  manual 
or  typewritten  outline  was  the  usual  procedure.  In  most  cases, 
students  worked  as  individuals,  each  one  responsible  for  the  doing 
and  recording  of  the  whole  number  of  experiments.  That  is,  the 
plan  of  procedure  is  that  usual  in  the  physics  and  chemistry  of  the 
high  school.  In  a  few  cases,  poverty  of  equipment  was  such  that 
no  ingenuity  in  the  rotation  of  apparatus  could  give  individuals  a 
chance,  and  the  class  worked  in  groups.  Demonstration  by  the 
teacher,  and  in  one  case  by  selected  students,  before  the  class,  is 
the  only  method  used  in  the  laboratory  of  six  schools.  Six  high 
schools  did  no  laboratory  work. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  piece  of  apparatus  in  the  schools  is  a 
hand-power  Babcock  tester.  The  presence  of  that  useful  little 
machine  is  indicative  of  the  dairy  work  of  the  high  schools.  The 
restriction  of  dairy  laboratory  work  to  milk  testing  in  such  schools 
is  almost  inevitable.  Even  the  possession  of  live  stock  may  not 
justify  the  use  of  milk  for  practice  in  the  making  of  butter,  or  more 
rarely  of  cheese,  though  pasteurization  might  well  be  more  fre- 
quently taught,  even  in  high  schools  owning  no  dairy  cattle. 

The  amount  of  time  given  to  testing  milk  is  very  variable.  Some- 
times merely  a  test  by  each  boy,  or  even  by  the  teacher,  makes  up 
all  the  work.  More  frequently,  however,  the  work  is  motivated  by 
testing  of  the  pupils'  home  herd  or  individual  cows.  Sometimes  the 
high  school  becomes  the  medium  for  testing  of  herds  in  the  com- 
munity. One  school  reported  making  tests  for  180  farmers.  An- 


Method  101 

other  had  tested  for  the  elimination  of  unprofitable  animals  in 
sixty  herds  during  the  year.  In  such  cases,  the  work  becomes  a 
community  service,  but  from  the  educative  point  of  view  becomes 
excessive. 

In  the  special  schools,  the  possession  of  live  stock  and  complete 
equipment  allows  an  elaboration  of  work  in  the  dairy  laboratory. 
To  the  testing  of  milk,  skim  milk  and  cream,  for  butter  fat  and 
solids,  testing  for  adulteration,  for  acidity,  is  added  work  in  pas- 
teurization, sterilization,  standardization,  cooling,  skimming,  butter- 
making,  and  even  cheese-making.  In  the  larger  schools,  the  labor- 
atory work  is  not  to  be  distinguished  in  content  or  method  from 
that  given  undergraduates  in  colleges. 

In  Farm  Management,  laboratory  work  consists  almost  wholly  in 
the  working  of  problems  in  cost  accounting,  planning  of  rotations, 
and  mapping  of  farms  and  buildings.  To  this  is  sometimes  added 
'survey'  work  on  the  home  farm,  or  on  neighboring  farms.  Two 
schools  had  completed  a  community  agricultural  'survey'.  Again, 
field  surveying,  with  compass,  transit,  level  or  plane  table  may  be 
a  part  of  the  work,  though  this  is  infrequent.  The  class  may  recom- 
mend systems  of  cropping  or  rearrangement  for  farmers,  thus  per- 
forming a  community  service,  but  is  not  often  called  upon  to  do  so. 
Most  of  the  problems  are  fictitious,  but  a  tendency  to  make  them 
real  is  apparent. 

METHOD  IN  SHOP  WORK.  See  Table  30 

Thirteen  schools  in  the  high  school  group  did  not  include  shop 
work  in  the  course  of  agriculture,  and  the  preparatory  school  like- 
wise. All  other  schools  gave  shop  work. 

In  eight  high  schools,  three  state-aided,  the  formal  tool  process 
sequence  of  the  old-line  manual  training  room  prevailed,  as  in  two 
of  the  special  schools.  In  seven  high  schools,  three  state-aided,  and 
six  special  schools,  procedure  is  by  process  sequence  until  such  time 
as  the  student  is  considered  trained  sufficiently  to  undertake  a 
project  of  his  own.  The  period  is  variable,  some  instructors  allow- 
ing the  student  to  choose  and  own  his  own  project  early,  after  a 
relatively  brief  preliminary  exercise  in  the  use  of  tools;  more  with- 
holding freedom  of  choice  till  a  relatively  prolonged  experience  in 
the  use  of  tools  shall  'justify'  the  undertaking  of  elective  tasks. 

The  thirteen  remaining  schools,  all  but  two  organized  under  the 
home  project  scheme,  made  undertakings  in  shop  work  either  (in 


1 02    Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

one  case)  wholly  a  matter  for  the  student's  choice,  or  (in  twelve 
cases)  optional  within  the  range  of  relation  to  the  home  project, 
school  project,  or  class  work  in  agriculture.  In  these  the  student 
begins  at  once  to  make  something  for  which  he  sees  a  definite  need. 
For  instance,  the  first  shop  work  of  a  boy  who  has  bought  pullets  for 
a  home  project  may  be  to  build  a  poultry  house;  if  he  has  a  house, 
to  build  appliances  for  use  in  it.  The  first  work,  in  two  instances, 
was  to  build  the  bench  at  which  he  is  to  work. 

All  sorts  of  undertakings  were  viewed  in  the  shop  work.  Favorite 
were  poultry  houses,  feed  hoppers  and  troughs,  brooder  houses, 
cold  frames.  But  bread  boards,  necktie  racks,  towel  rollers,  clothes 
hangers,  fancy  clothes  poles,  were,  perhaps,  more  frequent  still. 
Making  products  for  sale  or  for  gifts  to  the  family  were  common. 
In  a  Congressional  district  school,  the  majority  of  boys  were  engaged 
in  making  kitchen  cabinets,  of  excellent  workmanship,  for  their 
mothers.  Already  they  had  furnished  the  bureaus,  tables,  book- 
cases and  chairs  for  the  principal's  rooms.  In  a  county  agricultural 
school,  the  favorite  project  was  a  cedar  chest,  the  market  price  of 
which  might  run  to  thirty  dollars.  In  a  state  school,  preceding 
classes  having  equipped  the  farm  with  wagons,  sleds  and  wheel- 
barrows, present  classes  were  turning  them  out  for  sale. 

School  needs  were  sometimes  the  basis  of  shop  work.  One  class 
in  a  high  school  was  completing  the  equipment  of  the  building  in 
individual  lockers,  another  was  building  benches  and  cabinets  for  a 
chemical  laboratory.  In  repair  and  construction  work  about  build- 
ings and  on  the  farm,  the  range  of  undertakings  was  very  wide 
indeed. 

Rule  of  thumb  procedure,  the  following  of  explicit  directions  in 
the  shop  work,  is  usual.  Granted  the  choice  of  a  subject,  the  student 
must  undertake  its  construction  according  to  a  set  formula.  In  the 
process  method  step  one,  step  two,  is  almost  invariable.  As  to  re- 
sults, generalizations  are  difficult.  As  a  whole,  the  shop  classes  were 
among  the  most  interested  groups  visited;  in  product,  the  work- 
manship of  the  special  schools  was  superior  to  that  of  the  run  of 
high  schools.  Superior  equipment,  special  teachers  and,  it  may  be, 
longer  drill  in  the  use  of  tools,  contributed  to  this  result.  As  to  the 
superior  ability  of  these  more  skilful  workmen  to  meet  original 
problems,  no  statement  can  be  made.  For  the  project  workers  of 
the  high  school,  it  may  be  said  that  they  were  solving  original 
problems  in  fairly  adequate  fashion.  Numerous  examples  of  very 


Method 


103 


crude  workmanship  might  be  cited,  but  no  unusable  product  ap- 
peared. As  the  boys  carried  home  their  completed  manufacturings 
under  the  project  method,  the  range  of  exhibits  was  very  much  less 
than  in  the  more  formal  classes. 

SCHOOL  PROJECTS  AND  THE  USE  OF  LAND 

Activities  more  or  less  definitely  organized  as  so-called  school 
projects  are  reported  in  the  case  of  ten  high  schools  and  two  special 
agricultural  schools.  Such  projects  call  for  the  assumption  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  of  a  common  responsibility  by  all  agricultural 
students  or  members  of  a  class.  In  the  coordination  of  cooperative 
effort,  and  in  parallel  to  type  activities  of  groups  in  farming  they 
vary  widely.  In  three  schools  a  laying  contest,  in  which  each  stu- 
dent entered  one  or  a  few  fowl,  made  a  'school  project'.  By  pairs 
students  took  charge  of  care  and  trap-nesting  over  a  week  or  more. 
The  only  group  end,  perhaps,  was  that  of  securing  a  fair  competition. 
In  four  cases,  the  group  was  in  complete  charge  of  an  orchard  from 
pruning  time  to  harvest.  In  four  cases,  the  group  was  in  charge  of 
a  common  plot  of  ground  on  which  a  single  crop  of  alfalfa  or  several 
varieties  of  vegetables  were  grown.  In  one  case,  the  class  in  horti- 
culture had  organized  itself  as  a  club  for  social  enjoyment  which 
derived  its  funds  from  the  sale  of  greenhouse  plants.  In  another,  a 
class  in  farm  crops  carried  on  a  wheat  variety  test.  In  another, 
every  student  was  assigned  to  the  survey  of  several  farms  to  the  end 
that  the  group  might  complete  an  agricultural  survey  of  the  com- 
munity. In  two  cases,  the  group  was  responsible  for  the  conduct  of 
demonstration  plots;  in  three,  they  were  engaged  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  hen-house  or  shop  on  the  school  grounds. 

One  more  ambitious  project  is,  perhaps,  worth  recording.  The 
poultry  class  had  built  a  hen-house  and  yard,  and  installed  a  flock 
of  forty-five  pullets,  with  money  borrowed  from  the  school  board. 
They  had  collectively  and  individually  engaged  themselves  to  pay 
back  the  eighty-five  dollars  borrowed  in  equal  annual  instalments 
during  the  four  years  of  the  course  with  interest  at  five  per  cent. 

The  most  significant  school  project,  however,  was  the  formation  of 
a  cooperative  society  for  the  grading  and  marketing  of  products 
raised  by  the  members  in  their  home  projects,  on  the  plan  of  the 
fruit  growers'  association  among  adults.  The  organization  was  at 
its  inception,  and  no  measure  of  its  success  is  yet  possible. 

School  land,  used  otherwise  than  as  indicated,  was  usually  di- 


1 04   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

vided  into  individual  garden  plots,  either  for  all  students  or  for 
boarding  students,  or  for  city  boys  who  had  no  land  for  home  pro- 
jects. In  the  two  cases  when  allotment  of  land  to  boarders  had  been 
made,  the  summer  work  of  production  was  in  the  hands  of  hired 
labor,  the  expense  of  which  was  charged  to  the  sale  of  crops.  In 
several  schools  the  use  of  the  school  plot  was  wholly  for  the  provision 
of  laboratory  material,  particularly  varieties  of  legumes  not  common 
in  neighboring  farms.  In  boarding  schools  the  use  of  the  farm  was 
ordinarily  to  provide  for  the  boarding  house,  and  was  mainly  in 
charge  of  hired  labor.  Demonstration  for  farmers  is  the  end  of  the 
farm  in  several  of  the  special  schools,  commercial  profit  in  two 
philanthropic  schools.  The  educative  aim  is  absent  in  these  latter 
cases  though,  as  has  been  shown,  the  educative  use  may  be  consid- 
erable. 

Two  high  schools  reported  giving  up  the  school  plot  because  of 
losses  through  theft.  In  three  cases  the  possession  of  land  had  no 
significance.  It  was  not  used  for  any  agricultural  purpose.  Prin- 
cipals reported  that  since  most  of  the  productive  work  must  be 
carried  on  by  hired  labor  in  the  absence  of  pupils  over  summer,  the 
expense  of  cultivation  was  not  justified. 

METHOD  IN  OUTDOOR  WORK.  Table  30 

As  has  been  noted,  weather  and  season  made  opportunity  for 
observation  of  outdoor  work  in  about  half  the  schools  visited  unfav- 
orable. If,  in  any  one  particular,  the  run  of  teachers  were  uncertain 
and  somewhat  reticent  in  respect  to  their  replies,  it  was  as  to  the 
amount  and  character  of  field  work.  The  impression  is  distinct  that, 
apart  from  certain  home  project  schools,  and  some  schools  with 
farms,  the  proportion  of  time  allotted  to  outdoor  work  is  very  small. 
All  schools  that  reported  any  outside  work  whatever  are  included  in 
the  table,  even  though  that  outside  work  be  confined  to  scattering 
observation  trips  to  neighboring  farms  or  industrial  plants,  as  was 
certainly  the  case  in  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  schools,  or  to 
a  lesson  or  two  in  pruning  or  spraying,  the  planting  of  a  garden  in  the 
spring  or  gathering  fruit  and  field  crop  specimens  in  the  fall,  or  judg- 
ing a  few  horses  or  cattle  in  the  neighborhood.  One  teacher  re- 
ported that  he  spent  every  pleasant  day  of  spring  and  fall  outdoors, 
and  that  he  thought  fully  one-half  of  the  school  time  of  his  year  was 
so  occupied.  This  was  the  maximum.  Several  reported  giving  one 
day  a  week  during  fall  and  spring  to  outdoor  work;  more  said,  "I 


Method  105 

take  them  out  whenever  I  can  manage  it,"  which  seemed  usually  to 
be  not  often.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  in  those  high  schools 
in  which  supervised  home  projects  are  required  over  summer,  the 
total  of  time  spent  by  students  in  outdoor  work  may  be  consider- 
able. Reports  of  projects  indicate  from  one  to  two  hours  a  day 
during  the  growing  season  as  common. 

In  the  schools  possessed  of  farms,  the  requirements  already  noted 
of  a  minimum  period  of  farm  work,  ensured  some  participation  in 
productive  processes.  The  standard  for  such  schools  appears  to 
be  thirty  hours  per  month  of  farm  work,  but  the  total  of  work  is 
frequently  less  than  in  the  home  project  schools. 

In  all  high  schools,  outdoor  work  is  in  charge  of  the  teacher  who 
conducts  classes  in  the  schoolroom,  and  the  arrangement  is  usual 
in  the  schools  of  Groups  B  and  C.  However,  in  three  instances  such 
work  was  in  charge  of  others. 

In  twelve  high  schools,  and  one  state  school,  in  which  the  aim  was 
distinctly  acquirement  of  technology,  outdoor  work  was  almost 
wholly  observation,  usually  with  notes.  In  eighteen  high  schools 
observation  was  accompanied  by,  or  subordinated  to,  practice  in 
agricultural  processes.  That  is,  students  did  not  only  witness 
processes  of  spraying,  pruning,  judging,  selection  of  seed,  working  of 
farm  machines,  and  the  like,  but,  usually  after  demonstration  by 
the  teacher,  took  part  in  such  activities  themselves,  not  often  suf- 
ficiently to  attain  any  marked  proficiency,  but  sufficiently  to  give 
a  first-hand  acquaintance  with  the  nature  of  the  work.  In  a  few 
cases  the  organization  of  pruning  or  spraying  squads,  of  judging 
teams,  and  the  performance  of  community  service  gave  sufficient 
practice  to  the  attainment  of  unusual  skill.  Two  boys  were  reported 
to  have  earned  their  school  expenses  by  testing  farmers'  herds 
during  the  summer,  another  had  purchased  a  spraying  outfit  and 
made  a  business  of  spraying  for  neighbors,  several  carried  on  an  in- 
termittent business  in  pruning  orchard  and  shade  trees  and  hedges, 
another  had  passed  his  summer  at  the  stock-yards  as  assistant  to  a 
stock  buyer. 

Farm  work,  determined  by  season  and  the  needs  of  the  farm, 
made  up  the  outdoor  work  of  six  high  schools  and  ten  of  the  schools 
of  Groups  B  and  C.  In  small  schools  no  grouping  of  students  was 
necessary.  In  the  larger  schools  students  worked  in  groups  by 
assignment.  A  more  or  less  definite  attempt  at  rotation  in  processes 
wrs  reported  in  four  of  the  special  schools,  in  order  that  every  stu- 


1 06   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

dent  might  partake  at  one  time  or  another  in  all  phases  of  work 
carried  on.  For  instance,  in  one  state  school,  the  director,  who  made 
all  assignments  of  work,  kept  a  record  of  such  to  the  end  that  every 
boy  might  have  a  part  in  the  preparation  of  the  corn  land,  planting, 
cultivating,  cutting,  filling  the  silo,  and  feeding  silage  and  ear  corn. 
Under  such  an  arrangement  more  difficult  tasks  are  assigned  first 
to  the  most  experienced. 

Only  three  schools  reported  no  outside  work  whatever. 

From  work  witnessed,  the  impression  was  gained  that,  from  an 
educative  point  of  view,  the  outdoor  lesson  is  ordinarily  without 
organization.  It  lacks  definite  aim  or  plan.  In  one  county  school 
a  class  in  poultry  was  engaged  in  a  so-called  'school  project'.  Some 
twenty  boys  followed  the  instructor  to  the  tool  shop,  gathered  up 
hammers  and  nails,  and  repaired  to  the  hen  yards.  Two  or  three 
boys  were  assigned  to  each  yard,  and  busied  themselves  in  renailing 
the  base-boards  of  the  fences,  while  the  instructor  looked  on.  In  a 
state  school  a  squad  was  engaged  in  digging  potatoes.  Armed  with 
forks  and  hoes  they  marched  in  line  across  the  rows,  many  of  them 
chopping  every  time  into  the  center  of  the  hill,  or  spearing  tubers  on 
their  forks.  The  only  direction  given  was  to  'throw  out  the  rotten 
ones'.  The  descriptions  appended  suggest  the  same  lack  of  instruc- 
tion and  heed  to  the  essentials  of  the  skill,  however  simple. 

THE  HOME  PROJECT  PLAN 

The  use  of  the  home  project  as  a  means  to  teaching  agriculture 
is  growing  very  rapidly.  Chief  credit  for  its  development  and  spread 
is  due  to  Dr.  R.  W.  Stimson,  of  Massachusetts.  The  scheme  of 
teaching  agriculture  through  the  home  project  in  every  school  where 
it  was  found  was  based  in  features  upon  plans  first  published  by  him. 
Nearly  every  teacher,  by  the  method,  had  in  his  possession  and  used 
one  or  all  of  the  bulletins  published  by  Dr.  Stimson,  through  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  or  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education.  Conceptions  as  to  the  place  of  the  project  in  agricultural 
education  differed  decidedly  from  that  of  Dr.  Stimson,  but  the  prac- 
tical working  out  of  the  plan  has,  in  general,  much  that  is  common 
to  the  Massachusetts  schools. 

In  brief,  the  home  project  is  an  undertaking  by  the  student  on 
his  home  farm  or  village  lot  of  real  agricultural  work.  The  work 
may  be  one  of  production  through  care  of  plants  and  animals,  of 
investment  in  the  form  of  construction  or  improvement,  of  money 


Method  107 

and  labor,  or  of  comparative  experimentation.  In  the  vast  majority 
of  cases,  the  work  is  productive,  with  a  frankly  economic  motive; 
frequently,  as  a  necessary  concomitant  of  the  productive  effort,  in- 
vestment in  construction,  with  a  motive  also  economic;  rarely  im- 
provement with  the  aesthetic  motive,  or  experiment  with  a  view  to 
the  selection  of  improved  means  to  economic  production.  As 
examples,  the  students  may  grow  one  or  several  crops,  keep  one  or 
several  kinds  of  animals,  construct  buildings  or  drains,  undertake 
a  beautification  of  the  home  grounds,  a  betterment  of  sanitary  con- 
ditions, or  try  out  schemes  of  manuring,  or  compare  varieties  or 
strains  of  plants  on  the  basis  of  economic  returns.  The  project  may 
be  seasonal,  all  the  year  round,  or  continued  through  a  series  of 
years,  and  the  student  may  carry  on  several  projects  of  any  or  all 
kinds,  according  to  the  means  and  the  time  at  his  disposal. 

The  range  of  projects  is  suggested  by  the  appended  classification 
of  1,253  students'  projects.  The  classification  for  862  is  furnished 
through  courtesy  of  Mr.  L.  S.  Hawkins  of  New  York,  in  charge  of 
Agricultural  Education  for  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
the  classification  of  the  remaining  391  is  compiled  from  lists  fur- 
nished by  Dr.  Stimson  for  Massachusetts  schools,  and  gathered 
by  visits  at  some  of  those  schools. 

The  prevalence  of  the  vegetable  garden  project  in  Massachusetts 
and  of  the  poultry  project  in  New  York  is  a  result  of  the  dominance 
of  the  state  requirements  for  state  aid  to  high  schools  for  vocational 
agriculture.  In  the  one  case  the  state  outline  calls  for  vegetable 
gardening  in  the  first  year,  in  the  other  for  poultry  raising.  A  large 
proportion  of  students  in  both  states  are  still  in  the  first  year  of 
work  in  agriculture. 

The  carrying  of  home  projects  through  the  growing  season  or 
throughout  the  year  may  be  required  of  the  student  either  with  or 
without  supervision  by  the  teacher,  or  may  be  optional.  Fifteen 
high  schools  and  two  special  schools  among  those  visited  required 
projects  of  all  students  through  the  course  for  the  attainment  of 
credit,  seven  high  schools  made  the  home  project  a  matter  of  elec- 
tion with  the  student.  In  all  cases,  qptional  projects  were  unsuper- 
vised,  in  all  but  three  cases  required  projects  were  supervised. 
Five  schools  had  laid  definite  plans  for  the  adoption  of  the  project 
method. 

In  theory  the  project  is  regarded  in  one  development  as  the 
central  activity  of  the  pupil,  out  of  which  arise  necessities  for  ad- 


1 08   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

justment  calling  for  skill  and  knowledge  which  must  be  acquired, 
and  giving  motive  for  research,  discussion,  and  classroom  work  to 
the  end  of  resolving  difficulties  in  achievement  of  the  main  end. 
In  other  words,  the  project  becomes  a  problem  through  which  the 
student  is  led  into  knowledge  by  which  he  may  solve  both  it  and 
other  problems  in  the  agricultural  field.  The  center  and  core  of 
teaching  is  the  project.  Selection  of  experience  is  radiate  from 
the  source. 

In  another  view,  more  widely  prevalent,  the  project  is  born  of 
classroom,  field  and  laboratory  teaching.  The  student  undertakes 
a  project  only  after  he  has  knowledge  sufficient  to  intelligent  choice 
of  an  undertaking  and  to  success  in  an  organization  of  means  to 
its  completion.  The  project  is  emergent  rather  than  central,  the 
fruit  rather  than  the  core,  a  verification  or  exercise  rather  than  a 
problem. 

Now,  in  practice,  as  revealed  in  the  schools  studied,  the  attitude 
of  the  state  department  or  the  officers  in  charge  of  the  organization 
of  agricultural  education,  seems  to  make  very  little  difference  in 
the  use  of  the  project.  In  Massachusetts  schools,  where  the  state 
department  stands  for  the  central  problem  idea,  it  is  customary  to 
undertake  the  work  of  vegetable  gardening,  as  nature  dictates,  in 
the  spring  of  the  first  year,  after  the  student  has  been  studying 
agriculture  for  some  months.  It  is  not  necessary,  even,  that  he 
choose  his  particular  sub-project  in  gardening  until  he  has  been 
studying  for  some  time.  During  the  fall,  he  studies  vegetable  gar- 
dening 'projects'  on  paper  in  the  form  of  typewritten  question 
outlines.  Thus  the  real  project  is  emergent  from  previous  study 
as  is  proper,  according  to  the  point  of  view  taken  by  the  authorities 
of  New  York  and  other  states. 

In  recognition  of  the  fact  that  classroom  study,  even  under  a 
topic  question  organization,  tends  to  become  academic  to  a  degree 
in  the  absence  of  a  real  problem,  two  teachers  had  introduced  sub- 
projects  with  animals  beginning  in  the  fall,  in  order  to  have  some- 
where in  the  boy's  school  experience  a  first-hand  problem  that 
should  give  motive  and  vitality  to  school  work. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  proposed  initiation  of  the  study  of  agri- 
culture with  a  home  project  in  poultry,  as  in  New  York,  makes  for 
the  possibility  of  an  immediate  problem.  To  be  sure,  the  boys  are 
expected  to  study  poultry  first,  and  to  keep  poultry  later,  so  that 
the  spring  is  the  normal  season  for  the  emergence  of  reality.  But 


Method  109 

in  four  New  York  schools,  teachers  had  seized  upon  the  opportunity 
for  beginning  with  the  realities  by  getting  their  poultry  projects 
under  way  in  the  fall.  Topical  organization,  much  like  that  of  the 
Massachusetts  schools,  except  for  the  omission  of  the  question 
mark,  appeared  in  some  of  these  schools,  but  direct  dependence 
upon  the  text  as  a  guide,  at  least  to  the  sequence  of  topics,  was 
usual.  Yet  two  of  these  men  had  come,  somehow  or  other,  to  the 
idea  that  the  real  problem  should  control.  For  instance,  both, 
having  poultry  already  purchased  by  pupils,  and,  at  least  temporar- 
ily housed,  had  yielded  to  the  pressure  of  common  sense  rather  than 
to  the  'logic  of  the  subject',  and  begun  at  once  the  study  of  feeding. 
Even  in  schools  where  the  living  creatures  were  not  yet  in  posses- 
sion of  students,  the  most  common  of  shop-projects,  begun  in  the 
fall,  were  poultry  appliances,  and  the  construction  or  improvement 
of  poultry  houses.  Fortunately  for  the  spring  arrangement  the 
usual  topical  order  permits  a  construction  problem  to  emerge  pre- 
maturely. 

There  is  a  suggestion  of  the  prevalent  academic  quality  of  the 
topic  or  question  outline  method,  in  these  cases:  At  one  school, 
for  some  years  renowned  for  its  project  work,  the  teacher  laid 
upon  the  table  many  sheaves  of  project  outlines  dealing  with  various 
crops.  He  told  the  boys  to  look  these  over  carefully  with  a  view  to 
choosing  from  among  them  those  best  adapted  to  their  home  con- 
ditions or  their  personal  likings.  For  a  half  hour,  while  the  teacher 
was  absent,  the  boys  sorted  and  selected.  At  the  beginning  there 
was  a  scuffle  to  secure  outlines  from  the  pile.  The  eagerness  was 
inspiring  until  the  cause  was  revealed.  To  the  successful  in  the 
scuffle,  possession  of  a  thin  sheaf  gave  delight.  All  inordinately 
thick  sheaves  were  sorted  out  and  laid  one  side  without  opening. 
Then  perusal  began  of  the  thinner  sheaves.  Among  these,  choice 
seemed  largely  determined  by  the  number  of  references  included. 
The  fewer,  the  more  pleasing. 

In  another  school,  where  the  teacher  showed  an  unusual  inde- 
pendence of  recommended  organization  and  gave  his  approval  to 
projects  only  in  accordance  with  their  fitness  for  the  particular 
student  and  his  home  needs  and  conditions,  one  boy  was  hard  at 
work  upon  a  sheep-feeding  'project*.  Inquiry  revealed  that  he  was 
a  village  boy,  having  only  a  small  yard  for  project  use,  that  he  knew 
of  no  sheep  in  the  vicinity,  though  he  had  seen  some  at  a  fair  in  the 
fall.  It  was  his  hope  that,  when  he  graduated,  two  years  hence,  he 


no   Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

might  go  to  his  grandfather's  farm  in  another  state  and  become  a 
sheep  farmer. 

In  another  school  the  teacher  confessed  that  he  found  it  necessary 
always  to  review  the  'projects'  studied  in  the  fall  before  the  plant- 
ing time.  Otherwise,  and  even  then,  he  said,  mistakes  as  to  width 
of  row  and  depth  of  planting  were  common.  "We  teach  eighteen 
inches  in  the  fall,  but  they  are  quite  likely  to  plant  at  twelve  inches 
in  the  spring,  if  we  don't  look  out."  There  is  food  for  reflection  in 
this  comment,  not  only  with  regard  to  remoteness  of  outdoor  and 
indoor  work  in  time,  but  as  to  the  selection  of  subject  matter  for 
'preliminary  study'.  Rule  of  thumb  directions  lack  through  con- 
tent, as  rote  memorization  tends  to  lapse,  and  in  this  form,  under 
modern  conditions,  are  frequently  unnecessary.  To  drill  in  the 
formula  for  Bordeaux  mixture,  for  instance,  as  is  frequently  done, 
is  absurd. 

So  far  as  classroom  work  was  observed  it  did  not  appear  that  the 
formal  question  outline  development  of  the  project  plan  was  in 
anywise  superior  to  the  categorical  topic  outline  with  its  refer- 
ences. Nor  is  there  any  particular  reason  why  it  should  be.  A 
reading  of  many  such  outlines  leaves  the  impression  of  a  trend  to 
a  stereotyped  form  characteristic  of  the  'subject'  rather  than  of 
the  particular  problem.  Indeed,  several  such  outlines  studied 
are  palpable  question  developments  of  the  text-book  treatment. 
Some  outlines,  however,  recently  published  by  the  States  Relations 
Service  show  decided  improvement  in  both  form  and  development. 
A  mere  change  from  the  categorical  to  the  hypothetical  form  of 
statement  does  not  of  necessity  secure  interest  or  provide  motive. 
Teachers  who  made  their  own  topic  assignments  seemed  to  secure 
quite  as  good  a  response  as  those  who  used  the  mimeographed 
'projects'. 

But  the  topical  assignment,  under  either  method,  possesses  one 
advantage  over  the  common  text  recitation.  It  brings  the  student 
into  contact  with  a  variety  of  sources.  Different  presentations,  at- 
titudes, points  of  view,  deductions  and  inductions,  come  to  his 
notice,  and  the  real  use  of  the  book  as  a  means  to  the  solution  of 
problems  may  come  home  to  him.  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
intent  to  teach  the  use  of  books,  is  not  very  evident  in  the  usual 
development.  References  are,  for  the  most  part,  specific,  by  title, 
author,  chapter  and  page.  For  the  farmer  nobody  stands  by  to 
furnish  such  direction  when  a  new  question  arises.  If  books  are  to 


Method  in 

help  him,  he  must  know  how  to  find  the  material  he  needs.  One 
teacher  reported  specific  recognition  of  this  fact.  He  said,  "For  the 
first  half-year  I  give  the  boys  exact  references,  and  I  make  it  a  point 
to  show  them  how  I  found  those  references  to  give  them.  After 
that,  I  expect  them  to  find  their  own  references,  when  I  assign  a 
topic,  and  they  do.  They  can  use  the  card  catalogue  and  the  index 
as  well  as  I  can." 

The  impression  is  distinct  that  academic  treatment  and  lack  of 
correlation  between  indoor  and  outdoor  work  is  still  marked,  even  in 
home  project  schools,  whatever  the  expressed  attitude  of  authority 
with  respect  to  the  place  and  function  of  the  project.  But  it  may 
be  that  the  conception  of  place  and  function  in  the  mind  of  the 
teacher  will  tend  to  lessen  these  evils.  Indeed,  in  the  cases  cited, 
such  appeared  to  be  the  case.  Accordingly,  which  point  of  view 
the  teacher  accepts  becomes  a  matter  of  importance. 

It  is  very  plausible  to  say  that  the  boy  cannot  choose  or  carry 
out  a  project  until  he  knows  how.  That  is  exactly  the  attitude  of 
the  shop  teacher  who  holds  that  the  student  must  not  be  permitted 
to  make  a  feed  hopper  until  he  has  mastered  the  tool  processes.  It 
tends  to  make  the  project  an  end  rather  than  a  means,  and  such  it 
is  plainly  in  the  minds  of  many  teachers  and  pupils.  Certainly  the 
motive  to  study  lettuce  growing  this  fall  in  order  to  make  money 
next  spring  furnishes  a  more  immediate  motive  than  the  vague  or 
supposed  desire  to  become  a  successful  farmer.  But  it  lacks  the 
immediacy  of  motive  of  the  problem  that  demands  an  answer  now . 
As  has  been  suggested,  the  process  sequence  may  result  in  a  more 
finished  product,  in  wood  or  iron,  than  the  problem  method.  But 
if  the  self-adjusting  human  organism  be  considered  the  product, 
such  superiority  is  by  no  means  clear. 

Further,  the  statement  that  the  project  should  be  the  emerging 
resultant  of  class  teaching  carries  in  itself  a  contradiction.  The 
project  has  been  brought  into  use  in  the  belief  that  class  teaching 
does  not  teach.  But  making  it  an  end  is  to  presuppose  that  class- 
room teaching  does  teach.  Certainly,  then,  the  project  becomes,  at 
best,  a  matter  of  supererogation,  an  exercise  or  confirmation. 

Now  the  introduction  of  'doing'  is  not  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
skill,  but  of  giving  meanings.  Not  one  teacher  in  the  lot  professed 
an  expectation  of  turning  out  skilful  farmers.  Every  one  expressed 
the  hope  of  turning  out  intelligent  farmers.  That  being  the  case, 
an  apperceptive  basis  for  learning,  founded  in  the  vicarious  experi- 


112   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

ence  of  the  classroom  is,  at  best,  but  poor  preparation  for  the  con- 
duct of  a  successful  project.  On  the  other  hand,  the  first-hand 
experience  even  of  an  unsuccessful  project  may  be  made  of  first-class 
importance  in  giving  meaning  to  classroom  teaching.  It  is  a  com- 
mon complaint  of  teachers  that  "I  can  teach  the  farm  boys  all 
right,  but  the  city  boys  and  the  girls  give  me  a  lot  of  trouble." 
Surely.  Because  the  words  of  the  text  and  the  classroom  convey 
a  meaning  of  some  sort  to  the  farm  boy,  if  little  or  none  to  the  city 
boy  or  girl.  Thus,  the  project  is  a  means  to  the  perfection  of  teach- 
ing, not  an  end  to  be  attained  by  teaching.  To  make  it  the  fruit 
rather  than  the  seed  or  core  of  method,  is  to  discharge  it  of  its  chief 
function. 

In  some  schools,  particularly  in  the  Middle  West,  this  argument 
against  the  project  is  made:  "This  is  not  a  region  of  specialties. 
Our  farmers  are  general  farmers,  they  farm  on  a  large  scale,  and  a 
diversified  plan.  They  are  not  growers  of  this  or  that,  but  farm 
managers.  Besides,  they  are  shifters.  It  does  not  follow  that  be- 
cause a  boy  goes  to  school  in  this  county  that  he  is  going  to  take 
up  a  farm  even  in  this  state.  He  may  go  to  Canada  or  the  Pacific 
Coast  or  to  the  Southwest.  If  you  train  him  for  a  specialty  here 
you  waste  his  time.  All  we  can  do  is  to  give  him  the  principles  that 
guide  in  successful  farming.  We  cannot  give  him  a  farm  to  man- 
age. The  home  project  is  all  right  for  the  East,  but  it  is  no  good 
here." 

But  this  is  to  say  that  because  we  cannot  give  a  boy  complete 
experience  in  the  problems  of  life,  we  should  not  undertake  to  give 
him  any.  The  project,  properly  used,  is  a  means,  through  typical 
instances,  of  induction  into  the '  principles  that  govern  successful 
farming.  In  so  far  as  it  is  real  and  first-hand  it  is  superior  as  a 
means  to  the  vicarious  experiences  of  the  recitation  and  lecture  and 
observation  trip.  The  spread  of  the  home  project  to  such  states 
as  Indiana,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  and  Minnesota  shows  a  growing 
realization  of  the  ineptitude  of  the  contention. 

Nevertheless,  the  charge  that  the  home  project  is  an  isolated 
experience  that  does  not  carry  over  principles  into  general  applica- 
tion is  not  without  foundation,  as  the  following  instance  may  illus- 
trate. In  a  school  where  the  adaptation  of  projects  revealed  un- 
usual skill,  a  fourteen-year-old  Italian  boy  had  purchased  three 
cows,  to  be  kept  under  housing  conditions  that  would  appall  the 
ordinary  dairyman.  By  intelligent  feeding  he  had  increased  pro- 


Method  113 

duction  to  a  profitable  basis  at  the  ordinary  price ;  by  extraordinary 
precaution  as  to  the  cleanliness  of  cattle,  lintel,  and  utensils,  he  had 
produced  milk  of  the  highest  grade.  Board  of  health  requirements 
hold  to  a  maximum  of  10,000  bacteria  to  the  cubic  centimeter. 
Tony  showed  the  visitor  certificates  for  samples  of  his  milk  showing 
less  than  5,000.  By  virtue  of  them  he  had  raised  his  price  to  twelve 
cents  a  quart.  It  is  plain  that  he  had  been  taught  to  do  one  thing 
well,  and  he  was  enthusiastic  over  the  possibilities  of  farming. 

Now,  in  a  yard  adjoining  the  barn,  ran  half  a  dozen  hogs.  Among 
them  was  one  particularly  scraggly  and  stunted.  In  reply  to  the 
question,  "What  is  the  matter  with  that  hog?"  Tony  said,  "I 
don't  know.  He  doesn't  seem  to  grow.  He  is  two  years  old  already. 
We  are  keeping  him  till  he  gets  big  enough  to  kill."  A  primary 
principle  of  the  economics  of  animal  production  should  have  told 
him  that  every  meal  that  hog  ate  represented  a  dead  loss.  But  the 
knowledge  that  guided  him  in  the  selection  and  management  of  his 
cows  was  of  non-effect  with  respect  to  the  hogs. 

The  fault  lay  not  in  the  project,  but  in  the  use  of  it.  Elements 
common  to  both  situations  existed.  The  principle  involved  in  the 
selection  of  profitable  cows  is  not  different  from  that  in  the  selec- 
tion of  hogs.  Moreover,  it  was  concretely  illustrated  in  his  own 
experience  so  that  exposition  of  it  in  the  classroom  should  have 
carried  to  him  more  than  a  casual  recognition.  The  case  but  serves 
to  emphasize  the  need  for  pedagogical  skill  among  teachers  of  agri- 
culture. It  is  perfectly  possible,  in  theory,  for  a  teacher  perfect  in 
knowledge  and  skill,  to  lead,  from  a  single  problem,  his  pupil 
through  the  whole  realm  of  knowledge.  But  there  are  no  such 
teachers.  For  regeneration  of  the  school,  a  first  requisite  is  to  pro- 
vide teachers  of  knowledge  and  skill  sufficient  to  the  selection  and 
emphasis  of  essential  principles.  Such  teachers,  working  through 
the  concrete  experience  of  the  pupil,  as  obtained  in  the  home  pro- 
ject, have  decided  advantage  of  those  who  cannot  know  the  pupil's 
experience. 

As  has  been  suggested,  the  selection  of  projects  appears  largely  a 
matter  of  dominance  by  central  authority.  The  justification  of  a 
scheme  which  calls  for  a  uniform  type  of  project  in  a  given  year  is 
made  upon  the  grounds:  One,  In  order  that  there  may  be  a  basis 
for  classroom  recitation  there  must  be  study  of  topics  common  to 
the  whole  class.  Two,  There  are  activities  common  to  all  farms 
which  are  within  the  scope  of  abilities  and  means  of  students,  i.  e., 


114   Organization  and  Method  in  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

the  farm  garden  and  the  farm  flock.  Hence,  the  prevailing  domi- 
nance of  the  kitchen  garden  and  the  poultry  project  in  state  plans. 

The  first  assumes  that  the  recitation  is  necessary.  The  second 
may  involve  waste  and  error.  Now  the  classroom  teaching  may, 
and  should,  prove  an  important  and,  perhaps,  the  most  important 
means  of  organizing  the  material  of  individual  experience.  In  so  far 
as  the  experiences  of  pupils  are  identical,  the  simplification  of  the 
task  is  real.  In  so  far  as  the  common  experiences  of  the  class  are 
limited  in  type  and  in  number,  the  trend  to  a  deductive  treatment  is 
likely.  In  so  far  as  common  experiences  are  numerous  and  still 
more  as  individual  experiences  are  diversified,  the  opportunity  for 
inductive  teaching  comes.  Thus,  enlarging  the  scope  of  the  uniform 
project  increases  the  number  of  instances  involving  common  prin- 
ciples. Increasing  the  diversity  of  individual  projects  is,  obviously, 
more  easy  of  accomplishment  than  enlargement  of  the  scope  of 
common  projects. 

The  selection  of  a  specific  situation  is  useful  largely  as  that  situa- 
tion contains  elements  common  to  probable  situations  in  future  to 
be  met  by  the  pupil.  The  project  is,  or  should  be,  a  typical  instance. 
But  the  single  instance  may  well  fail,  and  commonly  does  fail,  to 
reveal  its  class  bearing.  A  multiplication  of  instances  involving  a 
common  element  compounded  with  differing  concomitants,  serves 
to  the  exclusion  and  clarification  of  the  common  typifiers.  If  the 
single  project  has  a  weakness  as  a  means  to  teaching,  that  weakness 
lies  in  its  singleness.  To  induce  a  central  principle  diversity  of  in- 
stance is  greatly  helpful.  Thus,  as  a  help  to  inductive  teaching,  the 
multiplication  of  experiences  among  members  of  a  class  of  pupils, 
though  it  involves  experiences  vicarious  to  an  individual,  serves 
concretely  to  ease  the  process. 

The  project  method  is  essentially  inductive.  To  reduce  class 
experience  to  a  single  or  small  group  of  instances,  and  to  place  those 
instances  under  an  abstraction  voiced  by  the  teacher  or  text  is  the 
easy  way  for  the  teacher.  To  induce  the  generalization  from  appar- 
ently diverse  instances  is  to  increase  his  difficulty.  But  the  school 
is  not  set  up  for  the  ease  of  the  teacher. 

The  skill  and  knowledge  necessary  to  pick  the  essentials  common 
to  apparently  diverse  agricultural  practices  must  be  of  a  high, 
but  not  necessarily  of  a  superlative  order.  Principles  of  control 
are,  after  all,  relatively  few,  if  multifarious  in  their  manifestations. 
The  educing  and  organization  of  these  principles  from  as  wide  a 


Method  115 

range  of  real  activities  as  possible  is  the  function  of  class  teaching 
in  agriculture.  To  subordinate  and  lessen  the  number  and  scope 
of  these  activities  to  meet  the  needs  of  'the  subject'  is  to  prostitute 
that  function. 

Now  the  uniform  requirement  may  not  only  fail  of  providing 
adequate  adjustment  to  the  needs  and  means  of  the  individual, 
but  may  result  in  maladjustment.  A  boy  resident  on  a  large  dairy 
farm,  expressing  a  prime  interest  in  cattle,  desirous  of  succeeding 
his  father  in  the  business,  is  confronted  with  the  necessity  of  carry- 
ing out  his  initial  project  in  poultry.  Partly  in  pique,  partly  in 
curiosity  he  chooses  with  approval,  the  care  of  .ten  pullets  under  a 
famous  advertised  scheme  designed  for  the  square  rod  of  the  subur- 
banite's backyard. 

In  another  district,  the  sons  of  an  onion  grower  carry  projects  in 
kitchen  gardening.  During  the  growing  season  every  member  of 
the  family  is  engaged  all  day  in  the  onion  fields.  Only  before  break- 
fast or  after  supper  can  the  boys  be  spared  for  work  in  the  garden. 
Further  wheelhoeing  and  hand  weeding  they  find  uninstructive  and 
uninspiring.  The  teacher  has  taken  the  bit  in  his  teeth  and  de- 
clares that  such  forcing  shall  not  occur  again.  The  boy  on  the  onion 
farm  shall  have  an  onion  project  if  he  wishes,  the  boy  on  the  dairy 
farm,  a  dairy  project  if  he  so  desires,  and  the  son  of  a  fruit  grower 
an  orchard  project. 

In  another  school  where  the  full  four  years  of  work  are  under 
way,  only  market  garden,  poultry,  and  fruit  projects  are  in  hand. 
The  community  is  one  of  specialties.  Complaints  of  pupils  and 
parents  against  a  requirement  not  in  line  with  their  immediate 
needs  and  interests  have  led  to  the  rejection  of  the  state  outline 
in  part,  under  a  nominal  acceptance,  and  selection  both  in  project 
and  classroom  work  is  based  on  local  demand. 

Selection  of  home  projects  is  made  usually,  in  conference  of 
teacher  and  boy,  in  which  the  parent  is  included  to  the  extent  that 
he  has  promised  land,  animals,  materials,  and  time  for  the  boy's 
accomplishment  of  it.  Sometimes  boy,  parent,  and  teacher  meet 
at  the  boy's  home  for  a  choice  of  projects  within  the  limits  of  the 
established  plan  of  the  state  or  school. 

Some  teachers  were  exercising  an  admirable  independence  in 
judgment  in  order  to  adapt  the  nature  and  scope  of  the  home 
project  to  home  conditions  and  needs.  But  too  often  the  selection 
to  which  the  approval  was  given  conformed  more  nearly  to  the 


1 1 6   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

demands    of    an    outside    authority   than    to    the   conditions   of 
the  case. 

Some  of  the  state  requirements  show  an  excellent  judgment  and 
a  measure  of  flexibility.  For  instance,  the  first  year  of  the  New 
York  plan  calls  for  projects  in  poultry  and  shop  work.  Both  are 
well  within  the  means  of  the  ordinary  farm  or  village  boy,  both 
involve  common  farm  activities,  both  involve  active  'doing',  both 
may  give  'quick  results',  both  offer  a  rather  wide  range  of  selection 
not  closely  restricted  by  seasonal  or  soil  limitations.  Both  are 
based  on  a  psychological  foundation  of  appeal  to  adolescent  boys. 
The  two  correlate  excellently.  Yet  it  is  doubtful  if  the  imposition 
even  of  such  a  requirement  upon  all  alike  is  to  be  justified.  Varia- 
tion in  means,  interests,  needs,  is  too  great.  These  conditions,  the 
teacher  who  knows  boy,  parent,  and  home  conditions,  should  be 
allowed  to  weigh  as  determinants  of  choice  without  dictation  from 
authority.  Several  teachers  have  reported  that  it  was  their  custom 
to  ignore  authority  in  the  matter  of  selection  and  to  get  projects 
under  way  independently.  When  the  project  proved  successful 
it  was  in  no  case  rejected,  though  consultation  in  advance  proved 
quite  likely  to  result  in  a  forbidding  of  the  undertaking. 

The  conditions  that  enter  to  determine  the  choice  of  a  project 
are  numerous  and  call  for  careful  judgment.  It  is  easier  to  fall 
back  upon  the  outline.  That  teachers  do  make  their  own  adapta- 
tions in  some  cases  is  a  very  promising  sign.  Local  market  demands, 
home  needs  for  consumption,  soil,  climate,  topography,  season, 
capital  investment,  availability  of  tools,  machines,  horse  power, 
continuity  and  intermittence  of  labor,  prompt  results,  margin  of 
probable  success,  immediacy  of  motive,  personal  preference,  atti- 
tude of  parent,  and  of  the  community,  relative  educational  values, 
specific  aim  of  the  teacher,  are  some  of  the  factors  that  must  be 
considered.  Except  for  educational  values,  it  is  not  possible  to  say 
which  shall  control  in  every  case.  Instances  of  limitation  might  be 
cited  at  great  length,  but  a  few  will  serve.  One  boy  was  the  son  of 
a  tobacco  grower.  He  wished  to  grow  a  plot  of  tobacco.  But 
community  attitude  toward  the  teaching  of  tobacco  growing  was 
unfavorable.  He  had  to  grow  onions.  Another  boy  wished  to 
undertake  a  dairy  project,  but  his  father  would  not  spare  him  the 
cows.  Another  wished  to  keep  hens,  but  his  mother  disliked  them. 
A  father  wished  his  boy  to  undertake  feeding  of  dairy  cattle,  the 
boy  preferred  to  grow  strawberries.  Although  in  Massachusetts 


Method  117 

and  New  York  hay  is  the  dominant  crop,  only  four  projects  with  hay, 
all  experimental,  are  reported,  among  1300  odd  from  those  states. 
Intermittence  of  labor,  and  lack  of  scope,  outweigh  local  demand. 

Intelligently  selected  and  used,  the  home  project  method  is  one  of 
the  most  hopeful  features  of  agricultural  education.  On  the  social 
side  it  moves  to  the  unity  of  school  and  home  education,  it  lessens 
the  need  for  special  away-from-home  institutions,  it  enables  a 
greater  number  to  couple  the  interests  of  vocational  education 
with  interests  shared  by  their  fellows  in  school  life,  it  opens  a  way 
to  release  from  traditional  school  methods.  That  it  has  not  yet 
realized  its  possibilities,  is  plain,  but  not  altogether  discouraging. 
A  first  means  to  that  realization  is  the  teacher  imbued  with  a 
philosophy  that  carries  beyond  the  subject  to  the  pupil,  a  teacher 
who  sees  in  the  achievements  of  his  pupils  the  progress  of  method 
rather  than  the  fulfilment  of  ends.  Through  the  freedom  of  this 
teacher  is  to  come  the  progressive  organization  of  the  agricultural 
course.  The  teacher  and  the  freedom  are  rare,  both  are  possible. 

The  opportunity  of  the  teacher  in  agriculture,  under  the  home 
project  scheme,  for  individual  teaching  is  unexcelled.  As  no  other 
teacher  can,  he  comes  to  know  his  pupils.  He  sees  the  boy  in  the 
school  and  in  the  home  environment.  He  knows  the  conditions 
under  which  the  boy  has  experienced  life,  his  personal  traits,  his 
interests,  the  limitation  of  his  means,  his  needs,  his  opportunities, 
as  one  who  meets  him  only  as  one  of  a  class,  can  seldom  know  him. 
To  select,  then,  according  to  the  needs,  and  to  teach  in  terms  of  a 
first-hand  experience  of  the  boy,  are  to  the  teacher  of  agriculture 
difficulties  relatively  easy  of  solution. 

SUPERVISION  OF  PROJECTS.    Table  30 

When  supervision  is  required  of  the  teacher,  the  usual  plan  is  to 
visit  the  homes  frequently  in  the  summer,  less  frequently  in  the 
spring  and  fall,  while  school  is  going  on,  and  occasionally  during 
the  winter  months.  Once  a  week  in  the  summer,  once  in  two  weeks 
in  the  fall  and  spring,  once  a  month  in  the  winter  is  a  common  plan. 
But  few  teachers  reported  a  strict  adherence  to  the  plan.  Distance 
to  be  covered,  means  of  transportation,  weather,  and  other  duties 
tended  to  the  modification  of  any  set  plan.  Often  the  route  of  the 
teacher  is  a  long  one.  One  man  reported  it  necessary  to  cover 
125  miles  in  order  to  complete  his  round  of  visits.  As  a  sample  of 
how  the  work  may  be  carried  out,  a  report  furnished  by  Mr,  A,  W. 


1 1 8   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

Doolittle,  of  the  Concord,  Massachusetts,  high  school,  is  given  on 
page  182.  The  various  means  of  transportation  are  indicated  by 
data  furnished  by  Mr.  L.  S.  Hawkins  for  teachers  in  New  York  on 
page  1 80.  The  time  and  the  expense  involved  in  visiting  projects 
limits  the  size  of  classes  that  a  teacher  can  handle.  In  Massachu- 
setts a  limit  of  twenty  pupils  to  the  teacher  has  been  set. 

RECORDS 

In  all  cases  where  the  home  project  was  used  in  the  teaching  of 
agriculture,  full  and  more  or  less  systematic  records  were  required 
of  students.  In  some  schools  the  student  kept  a  daily  record  of  his 
activities,  even  those  not  concerned  with  the  project,  and  of  the 
weather.  Instructors  said  that  this  requirement  proved  irksome. 
The  boy  was  quite  likely  to  let  the  record  go  for  a  week  or  more 
and  then  to  fill  it  out  by  guesswork.  Even  the  reports  of  hours  of 
labor  upon  the  project,  particularly  in  the  unsupervised  projects, 
were  subject  to  the  same  sort  of  treatment.  But,  on  the  whole, 
the  requirement  of  records  of  expenditures  in  money,  man-labor, 
horse-labor  and  fertilizer,  and  the  like  were  faithfully  kept  and 
checked  against  the  sale  of  the  product  or  the  market  price  of  pro- 
ducts turned  in  for  family  use.  A  system  of  cost  accounting  is  in- 
tegrated with  the  production  project,  a  very  useful  feature.  Out  of 
this,  however,  seems  to  have  arisen  a  tendency  to  measure  the  success 
of  the  project  in  terms  of  the  profit  made  by  the  student,  and  to  look 
upon  those  schools  as  most  successful  in  the  teaching  of  agriculture, 
whose  students  have  conducted  most  profitable  undertakings.  Cer- 
tainly such  a  standard  is  in  line  with  that  of  common  life,  wherein 
the  most  successful  farmer  is  he  who  makes  most  money.  It  tends 
to  the  conviction  of  many  parents  of  the  worth  of  agricultural 
schooling.  But  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  educator,  it  is  not 
altogether  fortunate.  It  confirms  the  view  that  the  project  is  an 
end  rather  than  a  means.  It  measures  success  in  terms  of  the 
material  product  rather  than  in  terms  of  education  of  the  boy. 
When  this  view  is  held,  it  is  almost  inevitable  that  the  project  be 
reserved  as  a  test  of  ability  in  the  use  of  skill  and  knowledge,  rather 
than  that  it  be  put  forward  as  an  immediate  means  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  skill  and  knowledge. 

With  the  question  and  topic  outlines  of  project  plans  the  use  of 
the  note-book  is  common.  After  reading  his  references  the  student 
is  expected  to  organize  in  his  own  words  the  procedure  that  he 


Method  119 

proposes  to  use,  that  he  is  using,  or  that  he  has  used.  Of  the  value 
of  such  a  plan  there  is  little  question.  But  sometimes  the  note-book 
is  overworked.  In  one  school  the  plan  called  for  three  note-books. 
In  the  first,  the  student  answered  all  questions  out  of  his  own 
unaided  experience.  In  the  second,  he  entered  answers  derived 
from  reference  study  and  inquiry.  In  the  third,  he  organized  the 
whole  in  his  own  words.  One  student  had  filled  fifteen  five-cent 
note-books  in  the  course  of  a  half  year. 


EXTENSION  WORK 

No  study  of  the  extension  activities  of  teachers  was  made.  As 
a  rule,  the  interest  of  teachers  in  this  side  of  their  work  is  strong. 
A  favorable  acquaintance  among  farmers  may  lead  to  the  county 
agent's  job,  which  pays  a  higher  salary  than  is  usual  for  teachers, 
and  such  acquaintance  is  distinctly  an  aid  to  the  agricultural 
course,  both  in  attracting  sons  of  farmers  to  it,  and  in  securing  co- 
operative interest  from  farm  owners.  It  may  lead  to  subordination 
of  the  teacher's  interest  in  teaching  to  that  in  community  work. 
Several  teachers  objected  to  required  supervision  of  projects  on  the 
ground  that  it  interfered  with  work  among  the  farmers.  Others 
held  that  the  project  was  a  most  useful  instrument  to  extension 
teaching.  Through  interest  in  his  son  they  reached  the  farmer, 
by  more  frequent  visits  they  became  well  acquainted  with  him  and 
his  problems,  and  were  able  to  give  and  to  receive  more  aid  among 
the  few  thus  reached  than  by  a  more  cursory  acquaintance  with  a 
greater  number. 

In  itself  the  extension  work  presents  a  large  educational  problem, 
that  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  paper.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however, 
that  it  is  not  of  necessity  educative.  One  teacher  reported  with 
pride  that  he  had  repaired  for  the  farmers  of  his  county  eighty-nine 
binders  during  the  year.  Whenever  a  farmer's  binder  broke  down, 
he  telephoned  to  the  teacher  to  come  out  and  mend  it.  The  infer- 
ence is  obvious.  In  Minnesota  the  instructor  is  required  to  give 
one-fourth  or  more  of  his  time  to  extension,  projects  are  likely  to 
be  unsupervised.  In  Massachusetts  no  extension  requirement  is 
set.  Supervision  of  required  projects  is  made  law. 


CORRELATION.    See  Table  31 

Attempts  at  making  common  bonds  between  the  divisions  of  pro- 
ductive agriculture  and  other  subjects  in  the  course  for  students 
in  agriculture  are  reported  in  only  half  the  schools.  Where  agri- 
cultural 'bias'  was  said  to  be  given  to  any  subject  or  where  it  was 
given  a  distinct  appellation,  as  'Agricultural  Botany',  the  fact  is 
recorded  in  the  table.  Botany,  zoology,  arithmetic,  chemistry,  and 
English  are  the  most  frequently  noted.  Relatively  the  adaptation 
is  much  more  frequent  in  the  special  schools  than  in  the  high  schools. 
The  modification  of  English,  however,  is  commonly  restricted  to 
the  short  courses,  since  modification  in  the  regular  course  is  fatal 
to  high  school  credit. 

The  degree  to  which  modification  takes  place  is  uncertain.  In 
lessons  observed  the  reported  'bias'  was  frequently  imperceptible. 
As  an  instance  one  high  school  teacher  who  reported  enthusiastically, 
"Yes,  I  tie  up  all  my  work  with  the  agriculture,"  gave  a  lesson  on 
the  endogenous  stem,  at  which  the  visitor  was  present.  The  day 
was  hot  and  the  windows  open.  Just  out  of  reach  the  grass  grew 
a  foot  in  height.  Across  the  road  some  hundred  feet  distant  the 
corn  stood  in  green  rows.  But  the  center  of  the  study  was  a  dia- 
gram of  the  stem  of  the  palm  tree.  Another  made  his  lesson  in 
Farm  Arithmetic  a  drill  in  solving  problems  all  of  one  type,  like 
this:  "What  number  diminished  by  seventeen  per  cent,  of  itself  is 
1 66?"  Another,  who  reported  his  chemistry  as  close  to  agriculture, 
was  drilling  his  class  in  the  writing  of  equations  such  as  2  NaCL+ 
H2SO4  =  Na2SO4  +  2  H  CL.  Except  as  the  chosen  text  carries  an 
agricultural  selection,  differentiation  in  teaching  is  not  marked. 

On  the  other  hand,  one  teacher,  who  apologized  for  seeming  to 
neglect  the  pure  science  aspect  of  chemistry  in  a  particular  lesson, 
excused  his  emphasis  upon  the  salts  of  ammonia  and  nitric  acid  on 
the  ground  that  the  boys  might  find  a  knowledge  of  them  useful. 
Some  suggestions  of  the  closer  correlations  achieved  has  already 
been  noted  under  Course  of  Study. 

Correlation  between  work  in  laboratory  and  that  in  recitation  or 
lecture  is  ordinarily  very  remote  in  time,  and  frequently  in  sub- 
stance. A  class  which  spends  half  a  period  in  recitation  upon  the 


1 22   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

capillary  water  of  the  soil  may  give  half  the  term  to  soils  experi- 
ments in  the  matter,  and  the  present  work  of  the  laboratory  and 
the  classroom  be  weeks  or  months  apart  in  relation  to  one  another. 
The  following  of  set  outlines  of  experiments  in  order  is  responsible 
for  the  remoteness  in  time,  the  selection  of  experiments  with  regard 
to  convenience  of  demonstration  rather  than  importance  of  the 
matter  demonstrated  is  probably  responsible  for  much  of  the  re- 
moteness in  subject  matter.  Definite  selection,  however,  is  made, 
that  the  work  of  classroom  and  laboratory  may  bear  a  meaningful 
relation  to  one  another  in  fourteen  schools.  The  method  of  accom- 
plishment is  usually  demonstration  by  the  teachers  (compare 
Table  29). 

The  subject  matter  of  class  study  and  the  outdoor  work  seem  to 
have  no  necessary  correlation  with  one  another.  The  one  is  deter- 
mined by  the  text,  the  other  by  seasonal  convenience  or  farm 
demand.  However,  in  six  schools  definite  attempt  is  made  to 
bring  outdoor  work  and  classroom  study  into  close  relation,  both 
in  time  and  in  substance.  All  but  one  of  these  receive  state  aid  for 
agriculture  on  the  home  project  basis.  Eight  schools,  all  working 
on  the  home  project  plan,  succeed  in  bringing  about  a  close  relation 
in  content  between  class  study  and  field  work,  though  the  two 
remain  far  apart  in  time.  Such  schools  study  the  details  of  the 
'project'  at  one  season,  perform  the  work  at  another.  A  class 
studies  all  the  details  of  lettuce  growing  in  October,  and  plants  its 
lettuce  in  April  or  May. 

So  long  as  the  text  dominates  in  the  classroom  while  the  realities 
of  season  and  location  dominate  outdoors  the  remoteness  of  these 
two  factors  in  the  teaching  of  meanings  will  remain.  No  more 
marked  weakness  in  agricultural  teaching  exists.  And  the  inclu- 
sion of  project  schools  in  the  group  undoubtedly  makes  the  showing 
here  better  than  the  normal. 


ADJUSTMENTS 

To  SEASONAL  REQUIREMENTS 

In  analysis  of  the  organization  of  the  course  of  study  the  fre- 
quency of  adaptation  to  season,  in  particular  of  the  crop  subjects 
has  been  noted.  In  the  outdoor  work  a  more  common  adaptation 
may  be  expected,  and  is  found.  In  Table  32  it  will  be  noted  that 
all  but  five  of  the  fifty  schools  have  made  a  definite  selection  of 
outdoor  work  in  accordance  with  seasonal  requirements.  In  seven 
high  schools  and  one  special  school  the  dominance  of  the  'subject' 
has  been  set  aside,  and  the  outdoor  work  planned  by  season.  For 
instance,  in  the  fall  all  outdoor  work  is  concerned  with  harvesting, 
hill  selection,  or  the  study  of  varieties  in  the  field. 

ADJUSTMENTS  TO  LOCAL  DEMAND 

A  study  of  the  productive  subjects,  in  so  far  as  it  is  complete 
with  reference  to  the  content  of  'the  subject'  agriculture,  almost 
of  necessity  touches  in  some  phase  upon  those  features  of  local 
farming  that  are  important,  but  that  accidental  impingement  may 
not  result  in  emphasis  being  given  to  such  phases.  Dominance  by 
the  subject  in  this  fashion  has  been  designated  by  inclusion  under 
the  caption  Slight  in  Table  32. 

Yet  where  the  dominance  of  the  'subject'  is  on  the  whole  very 
marked,  the  intelligence  of  instructors  may  result  in  emphasis  upon 
the  points  of  particular  importance  in  local  farming.  Twenty-two 
high  schools  and  four  special  schools  do  make  such  emphasis  in  par- 
ticular divisions  according  to  the  character  of  local  farming.  Dairy- 
ing, where  such  is  an  important  local  industry,  receives  special 
emphasis  in  fourteen  high  schools  and  three  special  schools,  Fruit 
Growing  in  ten  high  schools  and  one  special  school,  Poultry  in  four 
high  schools,  Gardening  in  one  high  school,  Forestry  in  one,  Road 
Building  in  one,  Drainage  in  one,  Corn  Growing  in  two  high  schools 
and  one  special  school. 

When  the  'agriculture'  represents  a  definite  organization  with 
respect  to  the  characteristics  of  local  production,  schools  have 
been  grouped  under  the  caption  Marked.  Six  high  schools  and  two 


124   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

special  schools  have  been  included.  In  two  of  the  high  schools 
selection  of  topics  has  been  made  wholly  with  regard  to  what,  after 
preliminary  survey,  have  been  determined  as  local  interests.  Not 
only  are  divisions  of  subject  matter  of  local  interest  emphasized, 
but  such  as  are  not  of  immediate  local  interest  are  omitted  from 
the  program. 

In  this  table  it  is  worth  noting  that  local  adaptation  is  a  feature 
of  schools  state  aided,  most  of  which  are  organized  on  the  project 
basis ;  that  it  is  not  a  feature  of  the  unaided  high  schools,  or  of  the 
state  schools,  with  their  large  units  of  community  service.  Indeed, 
a  swapping  of  courses  among  the  state  schools  would  not  materially 
interfere  with  their  usefulness.  With  two  exceptions,  a  change  of 
location  among  the  special  schools  would  call  for  no  material 
changes.  Their  course  is  based  upon  the  needs  of  'the  subject', 
and,  as  has  been  noted,  is  an  approximation  to  the  agricultural 
college  course,  in  respect,  at  least,  to  the  productive  side. 

OTHER  ADJUSTMENTS 

Particular  adjustments  of  course  and  method  have  been  noted 
throughout  the  study.  The  hobby  or  specialty  of  the  teacher  may 
effect  selection  and  emphasis.  This  was  a  marked  feature  in  two 
cases.  In  one,  the  teacher,  whose  only  adequate  knowledge  lay  in 
the  field  of  market  gardening,  imposed  the  study  of  that  topic 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  in  a  remote  dairy  region.  In 
another,  the  teacher  began  his  course  with  the  study  of  Farm 
Management. 

Definite  selection  and  emphasis  upon  topics  chosen  because  of 
their  adaptations  to  the  needs  of  local  progress  appeared  in  two 
schools.  In  both  cases  dairying  was  a  dying  business  in  the  locality, 
though  general;  fruit  growing  a  promising  business,  though  rare. 

In  at  least  three  schools  the  principal  effort  of  the  instructor 
seemed  to  lie  in  the  direction  of  producing  materials  for  exhibition 
and  advertisement.  In  each  case  the  camera  was  an  important 
adjunct  to  the  agricultural  equipment. 

One  city  high  school  requires  of  its  students  three  months  of 
farm  labor  some  time  during  the  four  years  in  order  to  graduate. 

A  town  high  school  in  which  about  half  the  agricultural  students 
enter  after  Thanksgiving  and  leave  early  in  the  spring,  has  devised 
a  scheme  of  quarterly  alternation  of  topics,  so  that  such  students 
may  receive  complete  subjects.  Students  entering  in  September 


Adjustments  125 

last  fall  studied  corn  during  the  first  quarter,  late  entrants  joined 
them  in  the  study  of  small  grains  during  the  second  quarter.  Next 
fall  September  entrants  will  spend  the  first  quarter  on  small  grains, 
late  entrants  will  join  them  in  the  study  of  corn  in  the  second 
quarter.  Thus,  without  duplicating  classes,  the  short  term  boy 
covers  the  subject  of  Farm  Crops  in  two  years,  the  full  term  boy  in 
one  year.  Recurrent  treatment  is  not  common,  but  adjustment  to 
that  need  is  found  in  the  plan  of  the  course  of  study  in  several  of 
the  special  schools.  Diversification  and  intensification  of  special 
topic  study  follow  the  general  elementary  treatment  of  the  first 
year. 

The  director  of  a  philanthropic  school,  in  which  farm  work  by 
assignment  constitutes  the  major  part  of  agricultural  training,  had 
noted  that  the  daily  tasks  lacked  the  inspiration  of  direct  motive 
and  tended  to  a  tedium  far  from  educative.  As  a  means  of  over- 
coming this  difficulty,  he  proposed  to  make  it  incumbent  upon  each 
teacher  to  call  together  his  class  before  the  beginning  of  daily  work 
and  to  explain  to  them  the  purpose  of  the  task,  the  opportunities 
for  acquirement  of  skill  and  knowledge  in  it,  and  its  meaning  with 
relation  to  the  management  of  the  farm  as  a  whole.  The  plan  was 
not  yet  in  effect,  but  the  making  of  it  is  significant  as  recognition 
of  the  need  for  motive  and  organization  in  outdoor  work. 


DISCUSSION  OF  GENERAL  APPLICATIONS 

The  study  has  given  some  glimpses  of  the  ways  in  which  schools 
have  sought  to  adjust  their  means  to  the  ends  of  agricultural  edu- 
cation. What  shall  be  taught  and  how  it  shall  be  taught  are  the 
larger  questions  that  they  have  sought  to  answer.  In  general,  they 
may  be  said  to  be  in  some  measure  of  agreement  with  regard  to 
answers  to  both  questions,  particularly  the  first.  That  which  shall 
be  taught  is  the  more  or  less  formally  organized  content  of  science 
with  respect  to  production  handed  down  by  the  agricultural  col- 
leges, along  with  the  more  fully  standardized  content  of  academic 
subjects  selected  by  the  high  schools  under  college  dominance. 
That  content  shall  be  taught,  in  part,  at  least,  through  the  use  of 
text-books  and  lectures,  and  the  question  and  answer  recitation 
method  of  the  high  school.  Yet  the  variation  in  attempts  at  organi- 
zation and  modification  of  method  in  the  contact  of  teacher  and 
pupil  reveal  the  fact  that  the  solution  is  by  no  means  'standardized' 
for  the  agricultural  course,  and  that  active  intelligence  on  the  part 
of  teachers  and  supervising  bodies  is  at  work  to  the  determination 
of  closer  adjustments  to  the  needs  of  pupil  and  community. 

The  factors  that  make  for  determination  of  content,  organization, 
and  method  in  the  secondary  course  in  agriculture  may  be  classed 
as  social  factors,  psychological  factors,  and  miscellaneous  factors  of 
expediency  due  to  physical  arid  administrative  situations  in  large 
part.  But  the  classification  is  not  easily  made  satisfactory.  The 
terms  used  are  not  wholly  disparate,  and  the  factors  distribute 
themselves  under  one  or  more  heads  in  nearly  all  cases.  But  the 
attempt  is  made  for  the  sake  of  organic  treatment  to  consider  some 
of  the  factors  resultant  in  the  agricultural  course,  under  that 
arbitrary  system. 

The  aim  of  the  agricultural  course  has  been  seen  to  be  variant, 
with  a  predominance  of  the  vocational  aim.  In  the  state-aided  and 
special  schools  in  particular,  education  for  farming  rather  than 
education  for  the  farmer  seems  to  be  the  prevailing  concept.  The 
economic  aspects  of  rural  life  rather  than  the  diversified  activities 
of  rural  society  as  unified  in  the  farmer  have  served  to  the  determina- 
tion of  aim.  As  ha's  been  noted  in  previous  discussion  this  fact  is 


Discussion  of  General  Applications  127 

not  wholly  fortunate.  Yet  to  this  fact  is  due,  probably,  in  no  small 
measure,  the  success  of  the  agricultural  course.  The  content  of  the 
so-called  science  of  agriculture  has  to  do  at  present  almost  wholly 
with  production.  Thus,  for  the  vocational  aim,  an  organized 
selection  of  productive  principles  is  at  hand.  Yet,  even  in  this 
organized  body  of  knowledge  selection  toward  the  end  of  control  of 
production  is  not  yet  closely  enough  adaptive  to  the  needs  of  voca- 
tional agriculture  in  the  secondary  school.  Much  that  is  irrelevant 
or  remote  to  control  is  included  in  the  content  of  productive  agri- 
cultural subjects.  If  the  accepted  content  is  to  be  made  of  most 
use  in  respect  to  its  aim  a  closer  study  of  relative  values  is  necessary, 
and  a  reject'on  of  superfluous  material  by  the  criterion  of  utility 
in  control  over  the  processes  of  production. 

If  the  aim  be  to  enable  the  student  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  farm 
life  sufficient  to  intelligent  choice  of  farming  as  an  occupation,  then 
the  scale  of  values  becomes  different.  No  longer  is  it  a  first  necessity 
to  give  that  knowledge  which  leads  to  profitable  control  of  plant 
and  animal  life.  Rather  the  appreciative  aspect,  both  emotional 
and  intellectual,  becomes  dominant.  What  it  is  that  makes  the 
life  of  a  farmer  worth  the  living  rather  than  what  makes  that  life 
possible  should  be  taught.  But  little  hint  of  the  difference  appears 
in  the  schools  of  the  study.  The  same  content,  somewhat  abbre- 
viated and  somewhat  more  academic,  is  found  under  the  prevoca- 
tional  aim. 

If  the  aim  be  preparation  for  the  life  of  the  farmer,  then  the 
curriculum  as  a  whole  must  be  subjected  to  evaluation  in  the  light 
of  the  needs  of  the  individual  and  society  in  a  rural  environment. 
It  is  assumed  that  provision  is  made  under  this  evaluation  for  the 
farm  boy  by  the  inclusion  of  those  subjects  in  his  course  which  the 
city  boy  studies.  After  all,  says  the  traditionalist,  the  lad  is  a 
human  like  the  city  boy.  If  his  vocation  be  provided  for,  in  other 
respects  his  needs  are  the  same.  We  can  pass  without  considera- 
tion the  question  whether  or  no  the  organization  of  the  academic 
work  be  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  city  boy.  It  does  not  follow  that 
it  is  adapted  to  the  life  of  the  farmer  outside  his  vocation.  He  lives 
in  an  environment  in  many  respects  widely  at  variance  from  that 
of  the  city  dweller,  both  in  its  physical  and  its  social  aspects.  More 
study,  such  as  is  now  being  made  by  students  of  rural  sociology,  is 
necessary  to  the  determination  of  social  values  in  the  curricula  of  the 
secondary  school  for  country  boys.  In  the  light  of  such  knowledge, 


128   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

a  new  set  of  values  should  come  to  determine  the  selection  and 
organization  of  subject  matter  in  the  course.  But  again  the  aim  is 
apparently  ineffective  to  the  determination  of  content.  The  same 
agriculture  is  taught  whether  the  aim  be  vocational,  prevocational, 
preparation  for  country  life,  liberalizing,  or  'cultural'. 

Even  in  the  productive  aspects  of  agricultural  study  much  is  to 
be  found  that  leads  to  enlarged  appreciation  and  enjoyment  of  the 
activities  of  life  both  in  business  and  in  leisure.  Selection  that 
ignores  these  values  leaves  unfilled  a  large  gap  in  the  scheme  of 
education  of  a  future  country  man.  He  is  a  man  and  socius  even 
in  the  acts  of  production.  Not  all  of  'culture'  is  to  be  lugged  in 
by  its  academic  ears. 

But  on  the  productive  side,  more  immediately,  selection  is  largely 
determinate  in  the  light  of  local  conditions  of  farming,  present  and 
prospective.  That  farming  which  exists  in  the  community  possesses 
at  least  a  'survival  value*.  It  is  a  solution  of  evolving  problems 
'standardized'  in  the  present.  As  such  it  has  received  and  should 
receive  the  attention  of  the  course  maker.  On  the  social  side  it  may 
determine  the  probable  situation  of  the  emergent  student.  If  not, 
it  may  be  justified  pedagogically  as  a  factor  in  selection.  Whatever 
the  future  seat  of  activity  of  the  pupil  may  be,  his  present  home 
and  community  situation  furnishes  the  concrete  means  to  learning 
of  the  principles  that  shall  control  in  his  future  activity  wherever 
it  may  be.  Further  the  present  adjustment  of  farming  to  local 
conditions  is  the  basis  upon  which  a  new  adjustment  must  be 
founded.  The  line  of  progress  is  most  nearly  indicated  by  the  trend 
of  local  variation.  That  educator  who  would  set  aside,  in  the 
prescience  of  his  own  training,  the  facts  of  local  adjustment  is  in- 
cautious. Selection  in  the  light  of  progress  must  not  be  a  priori 
but  a  posteriori.  Better  farming  tomorrow  shall  come  out  of  the 
farming  of  today. 

As  to  what  proportion  of  'subjects'  in  the  course  for  the  farm 
boy  should  bear  upon  production,  any  arbitrary  standard  is  likely 
to  prove  futile.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  case  of  the  prevocational 
aim  production  will  play  a  smaller  part  in  the  course  than  where  the 
aim  is  vocational.  The  allotment  of  one-half  the  course  to  produc- 
tive subjects  does  not  seem  excessive  in  the  vocational  schools, 
though  no  measure  of  results  is  available  for  determination.  The 
teacher  and  the  pupil  are  determining  factors  at  present.  A  bright 
farm  boy  may  learn  more  of  the  science  of  production  in  a  single 


Discussion  of  General  Applications  129 

unit  than  a  city  boy  in  twice  the  allotment,  and  a  poor  teacher  may 
make  the  work  all  vain.  Division  into  subjects  is  unreal  and  arbi- 
trary, allotment  of  specified  limitations  to  subjects  still  more  so. 
Only  experience  can  give  us  a  norm.  At  present,  a  minimum  of 
four  units  in  vocational  agriculture  seems  to  prevail,  with  a  trend 
to  increase  in  the  allotment. 

The  present  lack  of  correlation  between  the  productive  agricul- 
tural and  other  subjects  of  the  course  is  but  an  indication  of  the 
futility  of  arbitrary  division.  When  the  pupil  is  taught  in  the  terms 
of  his  own  life  and  with  reference  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  own 
needs  there  will  be  fewer  worries  over  the  disproportionate  share  of 
school  time  allotted  to  the  teacher  of  agriculture. 

On  the  psychological  side,  age,  home  training,  and  school  prepara- 
ation  are  important  factors  in  the  determination  of  method.  It  is 
these  that  give  the  boy  his  basis  for  learning  in  the  secondary 
school.  Grouping  by  virtue  of  previous  school  training  is  found 
in  the  special  agricultural  schools,  the  usual  plan  being  to  allow  the 
boy  more  advanced  in  school  rating  the  opportunity  to  proceed 
more  rapidly  to  the  conclusion  of  his  course.  He  may  devote  more 
of  his  time  to  'agriculture',  and  even  proceed  at  a  more  rapid  gait 
through  his  'subjects'.  With  high  school  training  of  some  sort, 
as  with  a  greater  maturity,  he  is  more  likely  to  be  subjected  to  the 
lecture  method  of  instruction  than  the  younger  or  less  prepared 
boy.  In  view  of  his  probably  greater  experience  the  words  of  the 
lecturer  may  carry  to  him  more  meaning  than  to  the  boy  less  well 
founded  in  experience,  but  that  the  lecture  method  is  to  find  its 
justification  upon  such  grounds  is  to  be  doubted.  However,  a  com- 
parison of  method  between  the  high  school  and  the  special  school 
group  carries  the  implication  that  it  is  so  justified  in  the  minds  of 
teachers. 

The  distinction  between  the  city  boys  and  the  farm  bred  boys  is 
one  commonly  recognized  by  teachers  in  conversation,  if  very 
seldom  in  practice.  The  most  complete  recognition  of  group  differ- 
ences is  found  in  one  of  the  'year  round'  philanthropic  schools. 
There  the  city  boy  must  enter  in  March  and  work  on  the  farm  over 
summer  in  order  to  win  his  promotion  at  the  end  of  the  year;  the 
farm  bred  boy  may  enter  in  October  and  complete  his  studies  with 
the  city  entrant  of  March.  Other  modifications  of  procedure  have 
been  mentioned. 

In  the  ordinary  schools  the  problem  is  one  of  exceeding  difficulty. 


1 30   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

With  a  fixed  system  of  class  teaching,  a  school  year  limited  to  the 
months  in  which  production  of  crops  is  at  a  standstill,  an  equip- 
ment inadequate  to  the  provision  of  farm  experience  for  the  city 
lad,  and  an  overburdened  teacher,  the  distinction  between  groups 
may  well  seem  hopeless.  A  provision  that  special  schools  in  some 
places  be  kept  open  for  city  boys  throughout  the  year,  or  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  course  for  city  boys  to  carry  over  summers,  while 
that  for  farm  boys  carries  over  winter  might  solve  the  difficulty  in 
special  instances.  In  the  high  schools  the  adoption  of  the  required 
project  under  supervision  seems  the  most  successful  adjustment  in 
sight.  A  mere  requirement  of  a  brief,  unsupervised  and  unchecked 
period  of  farm  labor  some  time  during  the  course  is  hardly  likely  to 
solve  the  problem.  But  definite  selection  in  outdoor  activities, 
such  as  has  been  noted  in  assignments  of  farm  tasks  to  city  boys, 
and  the  specific  treatment  of  cases  under  individual  teaching,  are  well 
worth  while.  The  academic  method  so  prevalent  in  the  classroom 
must  result  largely  in  waste  of  time  for  the  city  boy.  Even  to  the 
country  lad  in  its  common  abstractness  it  may  be  of  little  meaning. 

Provision  for  motive  is  a  matter  of  individual  psychology.  What 
serves  to  rouse  one  lad  may  bore  another.  But  there  are  motives 
of  wide  application.  The  commonest  of  these  is  the  motive  of  gain. 
There  is  nothing  dishonorable  in  the  use  of  this  motive.  Talk  of 
appealing  to  the  'loftier  instincts'  is  fatuous.  'Lofty*  may  be 
synonymous  with  remote  and  unreachable.  Certainly  the  motive 
of  academic  agriculture  is  'lofty'  enough  by  that  measure,  even 
though  it  be  professedly  economic.  To  attempt  to  reach  the  boy 
through  interest  in  his  own  welfare  is  not  to  display  an  apologetic 
weakness.  Rather  it  is  a  revelation  of  social  and  pedagogic  insight 
worthy  of  the  best  of  teachers.  The  success  of  the  home  project  is 
due  very  much  to  the  selection  of  motive. 

In  the  home  project  again  may  appear  motive  based  on  the  mere 
love  of  doing,  the  instincts  of  curiosity  and  manipulation.  But  an 
unapplauded  and  isolated  doing  is  not  in  itself  sufficient  in  all  cases 
to  carry  a  project  forward.  The  reported  lack  of  success  in  unsuper- 
vised projects  is,  perhaps,  as  much  due  to  lack  of  satisfaction  in  the 
approval  and  interest  of  another  as  to  lack  of  criticism  and  instruc- 
tion. But  the  value  of  consecutive  activities  not  too  prolonged  is 
hardly  to  be  doubted.  The  interest  and  even  delight  of  certain 
classes  in  shop  work  and  farm  mechanics  was  in  marked  contrast 
with  the  attitude  of  the  same  classes  in  recitation. 


Discussion  of  General  Applications  131 

Too  little  effort,  however,  seems  to  be  made  to  appeal  to  the 
native  interests  of  the  boy  in  the  organization  of  the  course  of 
study  and  the  method  of  class  teaching.  The  determination  of 
sequence,  apart  from  modifications  due  to  seasonal  and  local  de- 
mand, is  ordinarily  according  to  the  matured  psychology  of  the 
adult  mind,  that  has  organized  the  'subject',  already  known,  in 
relations  conducive  to  a  unity  of  grasp.  That  is,  the  sequence  is 
according  to  the  scientific  order,  proceeding  from  the  physically 
simple  to  the  physically  complex,  from  the  inorganic  to  the  higher 
organic  complexities.  But  it  is  questionable  that  there  exists  one 
organization  of  the  body  of  agricultural  knowledge  which  is  the 
only  scientific  and  logical  organization.  To  proceed  from  the  soil 
to  the  plant,  from  the  plant  to  the  animal,  from  the  animal  to  man 
is  certainly  scientific,  but  it  is  no  more  scientific  than  an  organiza- 
tion that  begins  with  the  relations  of  man  to  the  animal,  of  the 
animal  to  the  plant,  of  the  plant  to  the  soil,  or  than  one  which 
relates  man  to  the  plant,  to  the  animal,  to  the  soil.  Scientific 
Agriculture  is  an  organized  body  of  knowledge  dealing  with  the 
applications  of  pure  science  to  the  control  of  the  energy  of  plants 
and  animals  for  the  uses  of  man.  In  terms  of  energy  it  centers 
about  the  photo-synthetic  process,  yet  it  deals  with  a  cycle  of  storage 
and  release  of  solar  energy  from  end  product  to  end  product,  as 
exemplified  in  CO2  and  H2O.  The  cycle  is  complete.  It  has  neither 
a  beginning  nor  an  end,  like  the  circumference  of  a  circle.  In 
agriculture  it  centers  about  the  needs  of  man.  Where,  then,  we 
choose  an  end  point  is  a  matter  of  convenience  or  interest  and 
not  a  matter  of  scientific  necessity.  From  the  point  of  view  of  a 
psychological  organization  the  procedure  of  the  learner  and  the 
learned  are  to  be  distinguished.  The  organization  of  retention  is 
not  necessarily  that  of  acquirement. 

Indeed  it  is  hardly  to  be  doubted  that  the  organization  of  the 
'subject*  in  the  mind  of  the  most  hardened  of  professors  of  agri- 
culture is  not  that  by  which  he  acquired  the  organization.  Learn- 
ing is  through  interest  and  activity.  Interest  and  activity  are 
native.  The  first  interest  is  in  that  which  concerns  the  learner. 
Recognition  of  the  fact  appears  in  the  use  of  the  economic  motive. 
But  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  agriculture  becomes  unscientific  if 
learned  in  its  relations  to  man.  In  fact  it  ceases  to  be  agriculture 
where  not  studied  in  those  relations. 

But,  setting  aside  the  motive  of  self  interest,  it  is  normally  true 


1 32   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

that  the  boy  is  more  likely  to  find  interest  in  the  living,  moving 
animal,  than  in  the  living,  moveless  plant,  and  in  the  plant  than  in 
the  apparently  inert  soil.  In  a  broad  generalization  it  may  be  said 
that  the  psychological  sequence  is  not  far  from  the  reverse  of  the 
so-called  logical.  The  boy  who  desires  pocket  money  may  find  in 
that  desire  the  motive  to  study  the  dairy  cow,  through  the  dairy 
cow  motive  to  the  study  of  feeds,  through  feeds  motive  to  the  study 
of  crops,  through  crops  to  the  study  of  soil.  To  set  the  study  of 
the  soil  as  the  necessary  first  prerequisite  to  the  earning  of  pocket 
money  by  the  sale  of  milk  is  to  remove  the  motive  as  far  as  possible. 
That  the  scientific  development  of  the  'subject'  is  such  as  to 
require  remoteness  is  not  to  be  conceded.  It  is  quite  as  scientific 
to  begin  the  study  of  agriculture  with  milk  as  with  water,  of  zoology 
with  the  cockroach,  as  with  the  amoeba. 

The  argument  is  sometimes  put  forward  that  the  first  rule  of 
pedagogy  is  to  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract.  From  the  chemical  angle  CaCN2  is  more 
simple  than  the  albumen  of  the  egg.  Physically,  the  rock  particle 
of  the  soil  more  concrete  than  the  marketing  of  a  bushel  of  potatoes. 
But,  in  terms  of  experience  the  statements  can  be  reversed.  Imme- 
diacy of  physical  contact  is  no  warrant  of  intimacy  of  experience. 
The  soil  upon  which  we  walk  may  have  a  less  meaning  in  terms  of 
experience  than  the  nest  of  the  young  swallows  the  cat  caught  last 
summer.  Method  in  agricultural  teaching  is  not  to  be  determined 
by  repetition  of  terms,  but  by  the  realities  of  experience. 

On  the  side  of  expediency,  both  organization  and  method  are 
modified  by  such  factors  as  equipment,  the  demands  of  high  school 
and  college  'credit',  the  requirements  of  the  state  and  of  the  text- 
books. Both  are  limited  by  the  distribution  of  the  teacher's  time 
among  varied  duties,  and  the  ability  of  the  teacher. 

The  adoption  of  the  home  project  has  done  much  toward  solu- 
tion of  the  difficulties  due  to  lack  of  equipment,  but  much  is  yet 
to  be  done  in  provision  of  adequate  library  facilities.  Expendi- 
tures for  annual  increments  to  the  stock  of  agricultural  reference 
books  need  not  be  large.  Probably  what  is  now  spent  for  set  texts 
is  nearly  as  great  an  annual  sum  as  need  be  set  aside  for  reference 
books  under  a  problem  method  of  procedure. 

The  use  of  texts  is  not  as  a  rule  formally  required  in  the  agri- 
cultural subjects.  If  it  be,  the  text  may  be  made  a  servant  rather 
than  a  master,  by  the  teacher  who  has  the  ambition  to  be  free. 


Discussion  of  General  Applications  133 

Modifications  due  to  the  incubus  of  text  are  not  necessary  modifi- 
cations. 

So  long  as  preparation  of  the  few  is  to  dominate  the  course  and 
method  for  the  many,  the  requirements  of  high  school  and  college 
'credit'  are  factors  seriously  to  be  reckoned  with.  That  teacher 
or  educator  who  sets  the  education  of  the  pupil  above  the  require- 
ments of  tradition  risks  his  professional  life,  if  he  makes  sure  his 
intellectual  salvation.  But  the  organizer  and  teacher  of  the  agri- 
cultural course  have  not  the  excuse  of  the  principal  and  teacher  in 
the  standardized  high  school  subjects.  Their  work  is  newer,  its 
content  and  its  method  not  yet  so  hopelessly  crystallized,  its  aim 
less  vague.  That  the  tendency  exists  toward  standardization  of 
the  course  of  study  for  farm  boys  along  lines  made  familiar  by  the 
college  entrance  requirements  and  other  soporific  influences  is  un- 
fortunate. The  working  out  of  an  organization  and  method  cor- 
relate to  an  aim  based  on  the  needs  of  the  individual  in  a  rural 
community,  if  successfully  done,  may  suffice  to  the  breaking  of  the 
crust  of  tradition.  No  man  in  the  field  of  education  has  greater 
opportunity  for  service  than  the  teacher  of  agriculture. 

Those  in  charge  of  the  work  of  secondary  agricultural  education 
under  grants  of  state  aid  seem  generally  alive  to  the  fact  that  suc- 
cessful adjustment  of  school  means  is  to  come  through  trial  and 
rejection  by  teachers  in  the  field.  However  rigid  the  requirements 
they  have  laid  down  appear,  they  can  be  regarded  only  as  tentative. 
No  single  teacher  who  had  demonstrated  the  efficacy  or  apparent 
efficacy  of  a  variation  in  organization  or  method  reported  rejection 
by  central  authority.  The  function  of  these  officers  is  to  aid  rather 
than  to  prescribe.  Most  of  them  are  keenly  aware  of  it.  They 
have  put  forward  prescriptions  with  the  idea  of  aiding,  and  they 
do  not  stand  stupidly  in  the  way  of  progress.  That  they  have 
aided  in  many  if  not  most  cases,  is  probable.  But  the  same  cannot 
be  said  of  all  prescriptions.  When  the  state  manual  stands  as  the 
orthodox  bible  of  all  teachers  who  would  survive,  a  real  obstruction 
blocks  the  way  of  the  teacher  of  agriculture. 

That  the  more  or  less  educative  schemes  put  forward  by  agents 
and  professors  in  agriculture  in  agricultural  education  have  been  of 
help  is  due,  perhaps,  to  the  general  brief  experience  and  lack  of 
pedagogical  training  on  the  part  of  teachers  of  agriculture.  As  a 
group  these  men  are  as  well  paid  and  as  well  prepared  in  the  subject 
matter  of  their  work  as  any  group  of  secondary  school  teachers, 


1 34   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

probably  better.  But  that  some  of  them  are  really  teaching  boys 
instead  of  expounding  agriculture  is  due  to  the  use  of  organization 
and  method  under  a  home  project  scheme,  evolved  by  others,  rather 
than  to  their  own  initiative.  That  some  few  of  them  are  doing 
work  of  excellent  character  is  due  to  their  initiative  in  modifying 
proposals  that  have  merely  helped  others.  In  the  hands  of  such 
men  lies  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  education  for  the  farm  boy. 
Their  number  can  be  increased  by  careful  training  in  education  of 
agricultural  college  students.  With  release  of  their  energies  by  a 
more  selective  distribution  of  specific  duties,  an  adequate  allowance 
of  time  on  a  two  or  three  period  basis,  and  a  tenure  that  shall 
include  the  months  of  the  growing  season,  we  may  hope  for  closer 
adaptation  of  means  to  ends  than  now  exists. 

GOOD  ORGANIZATION  AND  METHOD  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING  AGRICUL- 
TURE CONSIST  IN 

I.   Selection  of  problems  according  to 

A.  Social  factors  of 

1.  Local  demand 

2.  Demands  of  progress 

3.  Type  representation  (scope) 

4.  Continuity  of  expansion  (correlation) 

B.  Physical  factors  of 

1.  Local  opportunity 

2.  Seasonal  determination 

C.  Psychological  factors  of 

1.  Immediate  activity 

2.  Apperceptive  basis  in  the  pupil  in  terms  of 

a.  Native  interests 

b.  Age 

c.  Farm,  village,  or  urban  experience 

d.  School  experience 

e.  Present  life 

1.  In  the  community 

2.  In  the  home 

3.  In  the  school 

4.  On  the  farm 

II.   Selection  of  the  teacher  in  terms  of 

1.  Farm  experience 

2.  Technological  training  in  Agriculture 

3.  Teaching  experience 

4.  Pedagogical  training 

5.  Personality 


Discussion  of  General  Applications  135 

III.    Selection  of  equipment  in  terms  of  simplest  adaptation  to  the  problem 

1.  Tools  for  energizing  accomplishment 

2.  Stock  for  productive  use 
For  comparative  use 

3.  Land  for  responsible  production 

4.  Books  to  answer  questions 

5.  Laboratory  materials  to  answer  questions 


APPENDIX 


EXTENT  OF  THE  MOVEMENT  TO  TEACH  AGRICUL- 
TURE IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

The  data  on  the  following  pages  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  com- 
plete. They  have  been  made  up  from  various  sources:  Letters 
from  state  agents  and  superintendents,  school  directories,  teachers' 
directories,  and  the  digest  of  state  laws  published  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education.  The  compilation  serves  at  least  to 
show  the  wide  distribution  and  the  considerable  number  of  schools 
engaged  in  the  work. 


State 

High  Schools 

County 
Vocational 
Agriculture 
Schools 

State 
Vocational 
Agriculture 
Schools 

Special 
District 
Schools 

Form  of  Special  Aid 

No 
Special 
Aid 

Special 
Aid 

Alabama 

54 

ii 

Arkansas 

4 

California 

37 

Connecticut 

5 

Florida 

3 

Georgia 

ii 

Idaho 

29 

Illinois 

70 

Indiana 

800  1 

4 

f  maintenance 

Iowa 

525 

Kansas 

441 

i 

Maine 

15 

$500 

Maryland 

16 

$400 

Massachusetts 

13 

3 

f  salary 

Michigan 

50 

2 

Minnesota 

176 

3 

$1000 

Missouri 

330 

Montana 

3 

$10  per  pupil 

Nebraska 

23 

Y*  maintenance  to  $1250 

Nevada 

o 

New  Hampshire 

25 

New  Jersey 

45 

New  York 

64 

4 

J   to  J  salary 

North  Dakota 

43 

5 

$2020 

North  Carolina 

15 

Oregon 

6 

Oklahoma 

6 

Pennsylvania 

25 

f  maintenance  to  $5000 

Rhode  Island 

o 

South  Dakota 

26 

Texas 

145 

1A  maintenance,  $500-$  1500 

Vermont 

II 

2 

All  or  %  or  J  of  $200 

Virginia 

ii 

West  Virginia 

IS 

Wisconsin 

2 

9 

$250 

Washington 

Total 

2530 

500 

14 

JO 

32 

12 

'About.' 


*  No  data. 


Extent  of  the  Movement 


137 


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1 38   Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


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TABLE  III. — Showing  distribution  of  schools  according  to  location 

Small  cities,  7000-20,000  population 
Towns,  1000-6000  population 
Villages  less  than  1000  population 


Group  Designation 

Large 
City 

Subur- 
ban 

Small 
City 

Town 

Village 

Open 
Country 

A.      High  Schools 

i 

4 

5 

IS 

9 

5 

Ai.   City  High  Schools 

i 

2 

5 

A  2.    Town  or  District 
High  Schools 

2 

12 

5 

A  j.    County  High  Schools 

i 

i 

I 

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2 

a 

AS.   Congressional 
District 

2 

2 

A6.   Junior  High  Schools 

I 

State  Aid  for 
Agriculture 

I 

3 

I 

9 

4 

2 

B.      Agricultural  Schools 

o 

2 

I 

2 

3 

2 

Bi.   State 

I 

2 

Bz.    County 

I 

I 

I 

I 

BS.    Philanthropic 

I 

I 

I 

C.      Preparatory 

I 

1 40   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


TABLE  IV. — Showing  expressed  aims  of  Agricultural  courses  as  given  by 
principals  and  teachers 

Others  aims  expressed: 

To  reach  the  boy — two  town  High  Schools 

To  dignify  manual  labor — Preparatory  School 


Group  Designation 

Voca- 
tional 

Prac- 
tical 

Country 
Living 

Prevoca- 
tional 

Liberal- 
izing or 
Cultural 

College 
Prepar- 
atory 

Citizen- 
ship 

i 

A.     High  Schools 

23 

9 

5 

6 

3 

4 

Ai.   City  High  Schools 

4 

2 

3 

I 

3 

i 

Az.   Town  or  District  High 
Schools 

16 

4 

I 

I 

I 

Aj.   County  High  Schools 

I 

2 

A  4.  Approved  Academies 

2 

3 

I 

I 

AS.   Congressional  District 

4 

A6.   Junior  High  Schools 

I 

Receiving  State  Aid  for 
Agriculture 

19 

5 

I 

O 

I 

I 

0 

B.     Agricultural  Schools 

10 

I 

I 

2 

Bi.  State 

3 

I 

62.  County 

4 

I 

I 

JBj.    Philanthropic 

3 

I 

C.     Preparatory  School 

I 

I 

Extent  of  the  Movement 


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§                      1      § 

1               ft     1      I 

•c       "      §      £      °* 

QO        rt         °        -3         2< 

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Extent  of  the  Movement 

TABLE  VII 
Distribution  of  Titles  of  Reference  Books 


143 


Number 
Titles 

Regular 
Text 

Historical,  Foreign  Agriculture,  Inspirational,  etc. 

15 

o 

Farm  Plant  Life 

10 

i 

Elementary  and  General  Agriculture 

37 

12 

Agronomy 

9 

2 

Soils  and  Manures 

43 

7 

Farm  Crops 

44 

5 

Horticulture 

19 

3 

Floriculture 

12 

0 

Fruit  Growing 

37 

4 

Forestry 

30 

3 

Insects  and  Diseases 

34 

4 

Weeds 

7 

o 

Animal  Husbandry 

24 

5 

Breeds  and  Breeding 

26 

4 

Feeds  and  Feeding 

16 

6 

Veterinary  Science 

18 

2 

Dairying 

29 

7 

Poultry 

35 

5 

Farm  Management 

19 

6 

Rural  Social  Conditions 

29 

o 

Rural  Sanitation 

10 

0 

Farm  Buildings 

8 

o 

Rural  Schools  and  Education 

ii 

o 

Agricultural  Chemistry 

9 

2 

Agricultural  Physics 

2 

I 

Special  English 

5 

3 

Farm  Arithmetic 

4 

2 

Farm  Engineering,  Mechanics  and  Shop 

45 

4 

Farm  Drawing 

7 

I 

General  Science 

5 

I 

144    Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 
TABLE  VIII — Reference  Books 

GENERAL   AGRICULTURE 


Author 

Title 

Publisher 

Refer- 
ence 

Text 

Total 

Halligan 

Fundamentals  of  Agriculture 

Heath 

7 

2 

Q 

Ferguson  &  Heath 

Principles  of  Agriculture 

Ferguson  Publishing  Co. 

4 

I 

5 

Voorhees 

First  Principles  of  Agriculture 

Silver-  Burdette 

5 

0 

5 

Jackson  &  Daugh- 

Agriculture  through  the  School  and 

O.  Judd  Co. 

7 

O 

7 

erty 

Home  Garden 

Goff  &  Mayne 

First  Principles  of  Agriculture 

American  Book  Co. 

II 

I 

12 

A.    D.    &   E.   W. 

Wilson 

Agriculture  for  Young  Folks 

Webb 

5 

0 

5 

Bailey 

Principles  of  Agriculture 

10 

0 

IO 

Bailey 

Am.  Encyclopaedia  of  Agriculture 

Macmillan 

10 

0 

16 

Mayne  &  Hatch 

High  School  Agriculture 

American  Book  Co. 

4 

I 

5 

Waters 

Essentials  of  Agriculture 

Ginn 

3 

2 

5 

Warren 

Elements  of  Agriculture 

Macmillan 

IS 

7 

22 

Brooks 

Agriculture 

Home  Correspondence 

School 

S 

4 

Q 

Wilkinson 

Practical  Agriculture 

American  Book  Co. 

5 

i 

6 

Fisher  and  Cotton 

Agriculture  for  Schools 

5 

0 

5 

Mann 

Beginnings  in  Agriculture 

Macmillan 

13 

6 

19 

Burkett,  Stevens, 

and  Hill 

Agriculture  for  Beginners 

Ginn 

12 

o 

12 

Call  and  Schafer 

Laboratory  Manual  of  Agriculture 

Macmillan 

4 

i 

5 

AGRONOMY 


Clute 

Agronomy 

Ginn 

9 

0 

Q 

Van  Slyke 

Fertilizers  and  Crops 

O.  Judd 

ii 

2 

13 

Hunt  and  Burkett 

Soils  and  Crops 

O.  Judd 

IO 

3 

13 

SOILS 


Lyon  and  Fippin 

Soils  and  Soil  Management 

Macmillan 

IS 

2 

i? 

King 

The  Soil 

Macmillan 

14 

I 

is 

Roberts 

The  Fertility  of  the  Land 

Macmillan 

10 

0 

10 

Voorhees 

Fertilizers 

Macmillan 

18 

5 

23 

Fletcher 

Soils 

Doubleday-Page 

2 

5 

7 

Snyder 

Soils  and  Fertilizers 

Macmillan 

12 

2 

14 

Whitson  and 

Walster 

Soils  and  Soil  Fertility 

Webb 

12 

9 

21 

Hilgard 

Soils 

Macmillan 

8 

0 

8 

Vivian 

First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility 

O.  Judd 

8 

I 

9 

Hopkins 

Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agri- 

culture 

Ginn 

IS 

0 

15 

Hall 

The  Soil 

Button 

6 

0 

6 

Hall 

Manures  and  Fertilizers 

Button 

6 

0 

6 

Elliott 

Practical  Farm  Drainage 

Wiley 

5 

0 

5 

Extent  of  the  Movement 

TABLE  VIII— Continued 

CROPS 


H5 


Author 

Title 

Publisher 

Refer- 
ence 

Text 

Total 

Bowman  and 

Crossley 

Corn 

7 

I 

8 

Sargent 

The  Corn  Plants 

6 

o 

6 

Montgomery 

The  Corn  Crops 

Macmillan 

7 

O 

7 

Voorhees 

Forage  Crops 

Macmillan 

5 

0 

5 

Livingston 

Field  Crops 

Macmillan 

12 

0 

12 

Spillman 

Grasses 

0.  Judd 

8 

o 

8 

Hunt 

Cereals  of  America 

O.  Judd 

IS 

2 

I? 

Hunt 

Forage  and  Fibre  Crops 

O.  Judd 

17 

I 

18 

Wilson  and 

Warburton 

Farm  Crops 

Webb 

II 

17 

28 

Shaw 

Clovers 

S 

0 

5 

Coburn 

Book  of  Alfalfa 

O.  Judd 

II 

o 

II 

Fraser 

The  Potato 

O.  Judd 

14 

0 

14 

Grubb  and  Guilf  ord 

The  Potato 

Doubleday-Page 

II 

0 

ii 

Shaw 

Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo 

O.  Judd 

5 

0 

5 

Dondlinger 

The  Book  of  Wheat 

O.  Judd 

8 

0 

8 

Myrick 

The  Book  of  Corn 

O.  Judd 

5 

o 

5 

Lyon   and    Mont- 

gomery 

Examining  and  Grading  Grains 

Ginn 

6 

o 

6 

HORTICULTURE 


Bailey 

The  Farm  and  Garden  Rule  Book 

Macmillan 

8 

0 

8 

Bailey 

Plant  Breeding 

Macmillan 

6 

o 

6 

Taft 

Greenhouse  Construction 

O.  Judd 

3 

2 

5 

Bailey 

American  Encyclopaedia  of   Horti- 

culture 

Macmillan 

7 

0 

7 

Green 

Vegetable  Gardening 

Webb 

6 

2 

8 

Bailey 

Principles  of  Vegetable  Gardening 

Macmillan 

II 

O 

ii 

Lloyd 

Productive  Vegetable  Gardening 

Lippincott 

9 

6 

15 

Watts 

Vegetable  Gardening 

O.  Judd 

6 

2 

8 

Bailey 

Manual  of  Gardening 

Macmillan 

5 

I 

6 

Bailey 

Garden  Making 

Macmillan 

6 

0 

6 

Beach 

Apples  of  New  York 

New  York  State  Experi- 

ment Station 

10 

o 

JO 

Bailey 

The  Nursery  Book 

Macmillan 

7 

0 

7 

Sears 

Productive  Orcharding 

Lippincott 

12 

9 

21 

Green 

Popular  Fruit  Growing 

Webb 

IS 

9 

24 

Bailey 

The  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing 

Macmillan 

19 

I 

20 

Card 

Bush  Fruits 

Macmillan 

IS 

0 

15 

Waugh 

Fruit,  Harvesting  and  Marketing 

O.  Judd 

9 

0 

Q 

Bailey 

The  Pruning  Book 

Macmillan 

II 

0 

II 

Waugh 

The  American  Apple  Orchard 

O.  Judd 

10 

o 

IO 

Thomas 

The  American  Fruit  Culturist 

5 

0 

5 

Waugh 

Systematic  Pomology 

0.  Judd 

S 

0 

5 

Hedrick 

Grapes  of  New  York 

New  York  State  Experi- 

ment Station 

6 

o 

6 

146   Organization  and  Method  in  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

TABLE  VIII— Continued 

FORESTRY 


Author 

Title 

Publisher 

Refer- 
ence 

Text 

Total 

Cheyney  and 
Wentling 

The  Farm  Woodlot 

Macmillan 

3 

2 

5 

CONTROL  OF  PESTS 


Sanderson 

Insect  Pests 

12 

o 

12 

Smith 

Economic  Entomology 

Lippincott 

5 

o 

5 

Chittenden 

Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation 

S 

0 

5 

Comstock 

A  Manual  of  Insects 

7 

o 

7 

Weed 

Farm  Friends  and  Foes 

Heath 

6 

0 

6 

Lodeman 

The  Spraying  of  Plants 

Macmillan 

7 

0 

7 

Duggar 

Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants 

Ginn 

13 

'  I 

14 

Georgia 

A  Manual  of  Weeds 

Macmillan 

7 

0 

7 

Farm  Weeds 

Ontario  Department  of 

Agriculture 

5 

o 

5 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Harper 

Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools 

Macmillan 

7 

7 

14 

Harper 

Manual  of  Farm  Animals 

Macmillan 

8 

I 

0 

Plumb 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry 

Webb 

8 

10 

18 

Craig 

Judging  Live  Stock 

ii 

2 

13 

Day 

Productive  Swine  Husbandry 

Lippincott 

8 

O 

8 

Davenport 

Principles  of  Breeding 

Ginn 

12 

O 

12 

Marshall 

The  Breeding  of  Animals 

Breeder's  Gazette 

3 

3 

6 

Shaw 

The  Breeding  of  Animals 

O.  Judd 

5 

O 

5 

Plumb 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals 

Ginn 

16 

5 

21 

Shaw 

The  Study  of  Breeds 

O.  Judd 

7 

I 

8 

Davenport 

Domestic  Animals  and  Plants 

Ginn 

3 

2 

5 

Johnston 

Book  of  the  Horse 

7 

0 

7 

Coburn 

Swine  in  America 

O.  Judd 

8 

O 

8 

Saunders 

Short  Horn  Cattle 

5 

o 

5 

Roberts 

The  Horse 

Macmillan 

8 

o 

8 

Gay 

Productive  Horse  Husbandry 

Lippincott 

7 

0 

7 

Henry 

Feeds  and  Feeding 

Author 

17 

3 

20 

Jordan 

Feeding  Animals 

Macmillan 

13 

I 

14 

Woll 

Productive  Animal  Feeding 

Lippincott 

4 

2 

6 

Smith 

Profitable  Stock  Feeding 

3 

5 

6 

Shaw 

Management  and  Feeding  of  Cattle 

S 

0 

5 

Diseases  of  the  Horse 

United  States  Bureau  of 

Animal  Industry 

7 

0 

7 

Diseases  of  Cattle 

United  States  Bureau  of 

Animal  Industry 

6 

0 

6 

Reynolds 

Veterinary  Studies 

Macmillan 

5 

2 

7 

Mayo 

Diseases  of  Animals 

Macmillan 

8 

O 

8 

Extent  of  the  Movement 
TABLE  VIII— Continued 

ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY 


147 


Author 

Title 

Publisher 

Refer- 
ence 

Text 

Total 

Eckles 

Dairy  Cattle 

Macmillan 

7 

0 

7 

Corn 

Dairy  Bacteriology 

14 

0 

14 

Michels 

Dairy  Farming 

4 

2 

6 

Martin 

Dairy  Laboratory  Guide 

S 

O 

5 

Van  Slyke 

Testing  Milk  and  Its  Products 

6 

I 

7 

Wing 

Milk  and  Its  Products 

Macmillan 

13 

5 

18 

Farrington  and 

Well 

Milk  Testing 

9 

3 

12 

McKay  and 

Larsen 

Buttermaking 

3 

2 

5 

POULTRY 


Watson 

Farm  Poultry 

Macmillan 

10 

3 

13 

Robinson 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry 

Culture 

Ginn 

16 

I 

17 

Lewis 

Productive  Poultry  Husbandry 

Lippincott 

18 

8 

26 

Brigham 

Progressive  Poultry  Keeping 

8 

I 

Q 

Valentine 

How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit 

Macmillan 

10 

o 

10 

American  Standard  of  Perfection 

American  Poultry  Asso- 

ciation 

7 

0 

7 

Lewis 

Poultry  Laboratory  Guide 

Macmillan 

6 

0 

6 

Lippincott 

Poultry  Production 

4 

3 

7 

FARM    MANAGEMENT 


Carver 

Rural  Economics 

Ginn 

S 

I 

6 

Bexell  and  Nichols 

Farm  Accounting 

5 

I 

6 

Taylor 

Introduction   to   Agricultural    Eco- 

nomics 

Macmillan 

8 

o 

8 

Card 

Farm  Management 

Doubleday-Page 

6 

I 

Q 

Warren 

Farm  Management 

Macmillan 

14 

9 

23 

Boss 

Farm  Management 

3 

3 

6 

Warren  and  Liver- 

Laboratory  Manual  of  Farm  Man- 

more 

agement 

Macmillan 

S 

2 

7 

Hunt 

How  to  Choose  a  Farm 

Macmillan 

6 

0 

6 

FARM   MECHANICS 


Davidson  and 

Chase 

Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 

0.  Judd 

13 

O 

13 

Davidson 

Agricultural  Engineering 

Webb 

7 

6 

13 

Cobleigh 

Handy  Farm  Devices 

5 

0 

5 

Brace  and  Mayne 

Farm  Shop  Work 

6 

z 

7 

148   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 
TABLE  V III— Continued 

MISCELLANEOUS 


Author 

Title 

Publisher 

Refer- 
ence 

Text 

Total 

Snyder 

Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life 

Macmillan 

6 

2 

8 

King 

The  Physics  of  Agriculture 

12 

I 

13 

Roberts 

The  Farmers'  Business  Handbook 

Macmillan 

10 

0 

10 

Bailey 

The  State  and  the  Farm 

Macmillan 

S 

o 

5 

Lipman 

Bacteria  and  Country  Life 

7 

2 

Q 

Johnson 

How  Crops  Grow 

0.  Judd 

5 

O 

5 

Osterhout 

Experiments  with  Plants 

Macmillan 

5 

O 

3 

Extent  of  the  Movement 


149 


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1 50   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


TABLE  X.  —  Showing  training  in  pedagogy,  degrees  and  subject  matter  training  among 
seventy-seven  teachers;  and  visitor's  rating  of  sixty-two  teachers 
A—  Excellent.  B—  Good.  C—  Satisfactory.  D—  Poor.  E—  Failure. 

u 

•o 
2 
O 

W 

M                                                                                                      M 

Q 

1O                 <N                         (N                                                       HI 

cs       cs 

O 

Oi               CO                     O*             HI              IN              ro             HI 

M           „         0           .            M 

PQ 

0\               CO                    "I                              HI 

«     *    -i-    ^ 

< 

M 

M                           M 

ii 

M 

11 

U,        M         M         M 

gcfl 

M            M 

33 

MM                                                                 M 

M 

iiii 

M 

IB 

t!  2 

0    g 

N 

1  3 

o  £ 

M 

M                                                                                                     M 

N                     IN 

$!s 

M 

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M               '                                        M                   M 

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M 

Pedagogical 
Training 

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M 

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M                                                       M 

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M   1            W                      fO                           <O                                          <N                                          HI 

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Group  Designation 

1             J            S                 1        ja 

o 

i      i  i 

11  s  1  1   I 

fc-ff    2    §    3    a 

<  CO      CO      CJ      CU      CW 
CQ            CQ      CQ      K)      (J 

Extent  of  the  Movement 


TABLE  XL — Showing  range  of  salaries  paid  to  406  teachers  of  Agriculture  in  Iowa 
high  schools,  receiving  no  aid  from  the  state,  salaries  of  no  men  teachers  who  have 
been  students  at  agricultural  colleges  or  universities  of  which  agricultural  colleges  are 
a  part,  salaries  of  fifty-eight  teachers  of  Agriculture,  and  salaries  of  fourteen  women 
teachers  attendant  at  agricultural  colleges  or  universities  of  which  agricultural  colleges 
are  a  part. 

Computed  from  the  Iowa  State  Educational  Directory,  1915. 


All  Teachers  of 
Agriculture 

Men  Having 
Some  Agricul- 
tural College 
Preparation 

Women  Teach- 
ers of  Agri- 
culture 

Women  Hav- 
ing Some  Agri- 
cultural Col- 
lege Train- 
ing 

400-  449 

2 

i 

o 

0 

450-  499 

15 

i 

5 

i 

500-  549 

8 

2 

5 

o 

550-  599 

18 

'2 

12 

2 

600-  649 

14 

2 

7 

O 

650-  699 

29 

5 

ii 

4 

700-  749 

24 

5 

6 

2 

750-  799 

31 

5 

4 

2 

800-  849 

34 

8 

i 

O 

850-  899 

I? 

5 

o 

O 

900-  949 

61 

16 

4 

I 

950-  999 

17 

2 

i 

O 

1000-1049 

41 

17 

0 

0 

1050-1099 

8 

2 

i 

I 

1100-1149 

23 

6 

0 

O 

1150-1199 

5 

3 

o 

0 

1200-1249 

27 

13 

o 

O 

1250-1299 

9 

6 

o 

O 

1300-1349 

9 

4 

o 

0 

1350-1399 

.  9 

4 

o 

O 

1400-1449 

5 

3 

o 

O 

1450-1499 

1500-1549 

4 

3 

0 

O 

1550-1599 

o 

o 

o 

O 

1600-1649 

5 

4 

I 

I 

1650-1699 

i 

0 

o 

o 

1700 

i 

o 

0 

o 

In  the  statement  of  preparation  the  length  of  agricultural  college  training  is  not  given.  A  state 
university  officer  has  informed  the  writer  that  such  preparation  in  the  majority  of  cases  means 
only  summer  school  attendance. 


1 52    Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

Salaries  of  teachers  of  Agriculture  in  state-aided  schools  of  New  York,  1915. 

Academic 

Year  Summer  Total 

Number  receiving    I  $750  200  $030 

2  800  200  1000 

1  850                   200  1050 
ii                  900                   200  noo 

21  IOOO  2OO  I2OO 

2  IO5O  2OO  I25O 

1  1075  200  12/5 
8         IIOO           2OO           I30O 

2  1150  200  1350 

5  I20O  2OO  I4OO 

6  1300        200        1500 

I         1400  200  1600 

61 

Return  of  salaries  of  instructors  in  Agriculture  for  136  state-aided  high  schools  in 
Minnesota  in  fall  ofipij.  [By  courtesy  of  Division  of  Agricultural  Education,  Univer- 
sity of  Minnesota.] 

Number  Receiving  Salary 

6  $1000 

II  IIOO 

4  1150 

43  1200 

10  1250 

15  1300 

7  1300-1400 
15  1400 

3  1450 

15  1500 

6  1600-1850 

Classification  of  fifty-nine  teachers  of  Agriculture  in  state-aided  high  schools  of 
New  York,  1915,  by  colleges  or  schools  in  which  agricultural  training  was  received 

New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  38 

College  of  Agriculture,  Syracuse  University  3 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  2 

Michigan  Agricultural  College  2 

Pennsylvania  State  College  I 

Cortland  Normal  School  (New  York)  6 

New  York  State  School  of  Agriculture,  Canton,  New  York  4 

New  York  State  School  of  Agriculture,  Alfred,  New  York  3 

59 


Extent  of  the  Movement                                 153 

Number  of  schools  in  New  York  receiving  state  aid  for  Agriculture  in 

1911-1912  16 

1912-1913  25 

1913-1914  34 

1914-1915  45 

1915-1916  64 

Number  of  high  schools  in  Massachusetts  receiving  state  aid  for  Agriculture: 

1911  i 

1912  2 

1913  9 

1914  10 

1915  13 


154   Organization  and  Method  in  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools 
TABLE  XII. — Showing  distribution  of  salaries  of  seventy-seven  teachers 


Group  Designation 

$500 
599 

$600 
699 

$700 
799 

$800 
899 

$900 
999 

$IOOO 
1099 

$IIOO 

1199 

$I2OO 
1299 

$1300 
1399 

$1400 
1499 

$1500 
1599 

$1600 
1699 

A.     High  Schools 

z 

I 

I 

2 

7 

2 

2 

5 

7 

4 

4 

i 

Ai.   City  High 

Schools 

I 

I 

I 

3 

I 

Az.   Town  or  District 

High  Schools 

I 

2 

2 

I 

I 

6 

4 

I 

Aj.   County  High 

Schools 

I 

I 

I 

A4.  Approved  Acad- 

emies 

I 

I 

I 

AS.   Congressional 

District 

I 

2 

I 

A6.  Junior  High 

Schools 

I 

B.     Agricultural 

Schools 

I 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 

4 

3 

Bi.  State 

I 

4 

I 

B2.   County 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

I 

BS.   Philanthropic 

2 

C.      Preparatory 

I 

Group  Designation 

$1700 
1799 

$1800 
1899 

$2000 
2099 

$2100 
2199 

$2200 
2299 

$2300 
2399 

$2400 
2499 

$2600 
2699 

$2700 
2799 

$3000 

$3150 

$5000 

A.     High  Schools 

I 

2 

2 

I 

Ai.   City  High 

Schools 

I 

I 

Az.  Town  or  District 

t 

High  Schools 

I 

I 

I 

A3.   County  High 

Schools 

I 

A  4.  Approved  Acad- 

emies 

AS.   Congressional 

District 

A6.  Junior  High 

Schools 

B.     Agricultural 

Schools 

I 

3 

4 

I 

I 

I 

2 

I 

I 

I 

Bi.   State 

I 

I 

Z 

I 

Bz.   County 

2 

2 

I 

I 

I 

83.    Philanthropic 

2 

I 

I 

I 

C.      Preparatory 

I 

Extent  of  the  Movement  155 

TABLE  XIII. — Showing  percentage  of  farm  boys  in  agricultural  courses 


Group  Designation 

0 

9 

10 
19 

20 
29 

30 
39 

40 
49 

50 
59 

60 
69 

70 

79 

80 
89 

90 

100 

A.     High  Schools 

3 

X 

I 

3 

I 

4 

4 

4 

5 

13 

Ai.    City  High  Schools 

3 

I 

2 

I 

I 

A  2.   Town  or  District 

High  Schools 

I 

I 

4 

3 

3 

3 

4 

A3.   County  High 

Schools 

I 

2 

A  4.  Approved 

Academies 

I 

3 

A  5-    Congressional 

District 

2 

2 

A  6.   Junior  High 

Schools 

I 

B.     Agricultural 

2 

I 

I 

! 

I 

4 

Bi.   State 

I 

2 

B2.   County 

I 

I 

2 

Bj.    Philanthropic 

2 

I 

C.      Preparatory 

I 

TABLE  XIV. — Showing  ages  of  boys  in  agricultural  courses  in  thirty-eight  schools 


Group  Designation 

Over  14 
Under  15 

Over  15 
Under  16 

Over  16 
Under  17 

Over  17 
Under  18 

Over  18 
Under  19 

Over  19 

A.     High  Schools 

2 

10 

10 

3 

2 

i 

Ai.   City  High  Schools 

2 

4 

i 

A  2.   Town  or  District  High  Schools 

i 

6 

5 

A  3.    County  High  Schools 

I 

A4.  Approved  Academies 

i 

i 

2 

AS.   Congressional  District 

2 

i 

A6.   Junior  High  Schools 

i 

B.     Agricultural  Schools 

i 

I 

I 

5 

Bi.   State 

3 

B2.   County 

I 

I 

Bj.   Philanthropic 

i 

2 

C.      Preparatory 

I 

1 56   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 
TABLE  XV. — Showing  units  in  Agriculture  offered  in  schools  of  Group  A 


Group  Designation 

K 

i 

iK 

2 

2K 

3 

3K 

4 

4K 

5 

6 

8 

A.     High  Schools 

10 

S" 

Ai.   City  High 

Schools 

i 

2 

I 

3 

I 

A2.   Town  or  District 

High  Schools 

I 

II 

3 

i 

ii 

8 

5 

A3.   County  High 

Schools 

i 

i 

I 

A  4.   Approved 

Academies 

2 

i 

I 

AS.   Congressional 

District 

I 

3 

A6.  Junior  High 

Schools 

I 

TABLE  XVI. — Showing  distribution  of  Group  A,  according  to  units  of 
Agriculture  offered  and  state  aid 


Group  Designation 

No  Aid  * 

State  Aid  for  Agriculture 

State  Support 

i 

2 

4 

5 

6 

2 

2K 

3 

4 

4K 

6 

8 

H 

** 

31/* 

4 

A.     High  Schools 

i 

2 

4 

2 

i 

I 

I 

i 

5 

I 

9 

5 

i 

i 

I 

3 

A  z.   City  High 

Schools 

i 

I 

2 

I 

I 

I 

I 

A  2.   Town   or  Dis- 

trict High 

Schools 

2 

I 

I 

I 

I 

8 

5 

Aj.   County  High 

Schools 

I 

i 

i 

A  4.  Approved 

Academies 

I 

i 

2 

AS.   Congressional 

District 

I 

3 

A6.  Junior  High 

Schools 

I 

1  Appears  in  High  Schools  and  Vocational  Departments. 

2  One  Vermont  school  receiving  only  $66.67  from  the  state  for  Agriculture  is  included. 


Extent  of  the  Movement 


157 


Boarding 

jn 

'3. 

3 

£ 

OV                                                                             W                      Tf                     rj- 

O              ro       f»5              ro       M 

_> 

g 
5S 

1 

r 

N                                                    M 

Months 

N 

M                                           N 

44 

<u 

i 

>O 

* 

M 

JB 
3 

$ 

CO                                  f*5 

M                                   M 

X 

1 

Ov 
CO 

fO                        M                       H                       M 

M                    M 

1 

00 
PO 

•^t              ro                                            w 

M                                   M 

1 

fO 

M 

M 

$ 

9 

CM                                           l-l 

£ 

I 

^ 

M 

£ 
| 

N 

n 

M 

J3 

! 

Tf 

N 

M 

S 

1 

IH 

(S                                   MM 

1 

N 

V)                    N           N                    M 

2 
1 

fO 

Tj-                     MM                      C*            M 

9 
$ 

Tt 

O\               00               Oi              fC              ^t              rf              M 
ro                                w 

f}                                     fO 

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o\           oo          a          «»>          •*          •*          M 

CO                                                   M 

0                      f*3           Tf                     CO           M 

j 
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M        J||        |     M       g|        g    3        g     »        §   | 

ffi      Uc^     HK     U^     <<     OQ     £>& 
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II  Is  S  £3  & 

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158    Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


"•*  «>5. 

3  a    * 

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t^                   M                              CO                   M                    N 

N                       M         M         M 

w 

PO                                                                              N               M 

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1 

rt 

M 

£ 

PO        N                     MM 

S 

i 

ta 

oo          fj               <N                      PO 

M        M 

•<fr 

S 

PO 

M                                 M 

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N 

O                                       PO              M              PI              •* 

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rr     N      P* 

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N        M                    MM 

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£3 

1-1 

D 

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O                                                      tl                                            M                    PO                   M 

„                       M         M 

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fcri 

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N 

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Designation 

^2                      tn                    -C                            *e3            J3 

liji.LilL*» 

hiifilliliiii 

S  u  ft  Hiic^  ucJ^  <<:  uQ  £$ 

.     H            r«                  «n           Th           «^          <> 

^     ^           ^                 ^j           ^           ^           ^ 

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<  c>5    w    U    d<    0< 

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Extent  of  the  Movement 


159 


TABLE  XIX. — Showing  distribution  by  years  of  Soils,  Farm  Crops,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Farm  Management,  Vegetable  Gardening,  Fruit  Growing,  Farm  Mechanics, 
Dairying,  Poultry,  in  seventeen  proposed  courses  found  in  state  manuals  or  other 
publications  dealing  with  four-year  courses  in  Agriculture  for  high  schools. 


Year 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Topic 

I 

2 

3 

4 

Soils 

5 

4 

i 

4 

Farm  Crops 

2 

10 

5 

0 

Animal  Husbandry 

O 

5 

9 

i 

Farm  Management 

0 

0 

o 

13 

Vegetables 

5 

4 

2 

i 

Fruit  Growing 

i 

4 

6 

3 

Farm  Mechanics 

i 

o 

i 

IO 

Dairying 

o 

4 

IO 

i 

Poultry 

3 

i 

6 

2 

1 60   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


1,1 

*  IS 


- 


ro 

o   ^ 

*•« 

N                                     N 

M             M 

1 

£ 

X 

^ 

ro                           N         M 

M 

2 

s 

C/3 

ff)              M                         M               H 

N               M                                 HI 

1 

1 

£ 

M 

H 
m 

b 

N                                  0) 

: 

ro                           ro 

? 

fO 

MM                 M 

M                                                    M 

>< 

c^ 

M                                                          M 

N 

M 

M               M 

X 

M 

ro         N         HI 

'2 

HJ 

^ 

10                           N                     <s         ro 

>O         HI         ro         N 

- 

t^           N                     N                                           HI 

C 

w 

M 

•^         M         ro         H 

V) 

8 

^ 

HI                          N 

M               HI               M 

& 

" 

b 

CO                           N 

N               HI                                 HI 

•* 

W 

N                          M 

« 

03 

f«5 

N           N 

> 

N 

Tt          M                          N 

H 

00                                     N                            N            Tf 

Tf             HI               HI               <S 

^ 

M 

2 

^ 

M            M 

M 

t> 

H 

ro                       N                  H 

M 

hk 

? 

O\              M                        00 

1 

c/5 

M 

1 

1 

^ 

M 

< 

A 

to 

CS             W                       HI 

ro 

M 

1 

N 

O          w                 O 

N 

•<t             M                         N                                 W 

M 

•I 

a 

0 

1       1    -3    $    Js 
J|    5         1    1    *     B 

II       M    Q    1 

ill    i  •  1  :  i  i 

0        j-        Q               £        -        .2        .» 

*:•!  Sf..-t  1-1  i 

i  .§   11   I   1   1  1 

KUH^U<U^ 

•-<         N               <^        ^        >o       ^O 
^        X        ^              ^        X        ^        ^ 

i         1  & 

fiii! 

<        W        O       d,        OH 
••*        «•«        «^ 

cq      CQ      cq      cq      G 

Extent  of  the  Movement 


161 


I  ji  I 
11* 

^.OC.O.^O                    „                   W 

d 
.2 

3 

z 

s     . 

& 

& 

1 

HI      ro     M      IN 

s 

a 

1 

oo     r»     Tt    o     HI     («j                                                                   M 

5 

I 

Ifl      \O         M         M         O         O\                     HI 

s 

1| 

°         J7        HI         CO      °         M 

O 

if 

f*5NOO\OOfO                   O^HITfHIM                                MW                                 HI 
HI         M         HI                       HI 

s 

ii 

SSSSS"5*""'" 

s 

8 

K 

IH         IH         M         M         <N                       HI 

0 

ii 

cfl  -rj 

o> 

JS    3 

HI        HI        HI                    Ht 

O 

,,,,_                                  „                       - 

J 

•s 

1 

H?      f?      fo      N       ^ 

g 

ll'g 

J-Q     O 
So 

»/>    N    oo     n    o     •"*    HI 

1 

j 

W       N       PO               HI 

J 

03 

HI                      HI                      M                      HI 

g 

0 

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I     J8 

i 

|°| 

g 

1 62    Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


-I 

G     >> 
11 


=3    S 


if 

J3     o 

H  £ 


9 


Fruit  Growing 

(D 

°3 
P 

y 

O     co 

^-a 

M 

M             H 

^\ 

\r>        <N               <N                    M 

M                                            M 

Tt             M               M               M               M 

- 

Tt                                          fO                                                             W 

fO                                N               W 

Season 

C/3 

ro         H                M 

M 

£ 

M               M 

to 

ro         M                O         M         H 

»   -    -    - 

u 

rt 
I 

>3- 

M                         M               M 

W                                 M 

PO 

Tt             M                         f> 

00              H               N                                 IH 

O) 

PI               W                                                                                            M 

ro         M                     N 

- 

M             » 

Vegetable  Gardening 

3 

'3 
P 

H 

fO            H             N 

* 

O\            M                     VO                              M                       H 

Tf          N                          N           M 

- 

t        H                ro 

H 

c 

(A 

t-             M                         Tt                                MM 

\O          PO         W          w          M 

£ 

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W                                                    M 

1 

•* 

N                                  N 

f<5 

M 

M 

w 

<*         w                 fO 

fO             C1                                 M               H 

H 

O             M                       Tj-                                                       W 

Tt             W               N               « 

Group  Designation 

1    1    .4        I 

1  s    s  1  °    I 

1  S  H  f  1  1     | 

is  si  f  11   ^ 

*!C°«&SK           S 

.f  .§  is  1  §  §i  1 

ffiOHKU<Ui5^ 

1-1            t>J                     *^           >*•           >O                  <> 

^     ^     "^        ^     ^     ^        ^ 

B.  Agricultural  Schools 
B/.  State 
B2.  County 
Bj.  Philanthropic 
C.  Preparatory 

Extent  of  the  Movement 


163 


11 

H  to 


*J 

M 

»  « 

*s 

X 

N 

M                                                  M 

b 

p 

* 

O\         w                00 

ro                     <N          M 

*3 

M 

« 

. 

M                                           M 

M             M 

1 

„ 

01                                    0* 

ro        M         M         N 

- 

2-2 

PO             M              M              Pi 

II 

M 

N                                       N 

03 

X* 

«             M 

^ 

* 

H 

M              M 

M 
_C 

- 

* 

S 

rj- 

M 

rt 

* 

N 

i>        w               ro                    MM 

N           N 

M 

PO                        N 

o  ^ 

"^    "H 

"3 

* 

M 

*o 
e 

3 

irj*     2   M   "»   N 

M 

_ 
- 

-             -                       .             C,              M 

N              M              M 

13 

s 

* 

M 

e 

s 

. 

ro         M                ON 

M 

- 

.00                 »,M          *         , 

M 

M 

*>          M           N 

Group  Designation 

-  !   Mil 

.  |  1    M  5  a 

1  i  1  »  !  1  1  ? 

•Sf     .tJ      o  *S      o      a      o      § 

B.  Agricultural  Schools 
Bi.  State 
Bz.  County 
Bj.  Philanthropic 
C.  Preparatory 

1 64   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


-S" 


SI 

It 


S  I 

II 


II 


T 


X 

Tj-            M             M             M 

1 
*1 

.5 

'S 

£ 

* 

S                          £ 

N 

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1  « 

N 

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Tf                                CO                                M 

M                                 M 

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S2 
c3   3 

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10          w           to                       M 

N               (H               IH 

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5 

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14         Ct         '4l          M 

N 

N               M                                 M 

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M 

01 
.SJ 

1 

$ 

fO                    N                     M 

| 

M 

M 

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1 

Ti- 

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K 

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CO            W             W             M             M 

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a 

X 

M                              M 

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X 

M                                                    M 

I 

N 

N           N           0                       M 

M 

N 

1 

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W             M             M 

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M 

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1 

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ill  III 

•§        C^        .|        "S       <         C        X! 

|      £      0      £      ^      -2      •» 
«      •»      S      ?     1      ^      K 
w      K      2      -      o      K      »- 

I  jr  1  1  •  r  •'  1  "  1 

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$                          o 
1               J      I 

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cq      cq      cq      cq      0 

Extent  of  the  Movement 


165 


M 

.S        «  o 


Stock  Judging 

a 

'2 

o   | 

« 

O               CO              «               M 

1 

CO 

M               HI                                   HI 

- 

N                                                                         M 

10            CO            N 

« 

HI                HI 

I 

03 

*E 

o   % 

<*           ••            M           H 

1 

CO 

HI                                                  H 

• 

CO                W                 HI 

03 

01 

'5 

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X 

Cl                                                                         M 

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1 

„ 

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1 66   Organization  and  Method  in  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


TABLE  XXVI. — Showing  distribution  in  Ornamental  and  Landscape 
Gardening  and  Forestry 


First  year  o  4 

Second  year  3  o 

Third  year  5  5 

Fourth  year  i  o 


Fall  o  o 

Winter  o  o 

Spring  5  5 

Full  year  o  3 


Group  Designation 

Ornamental  and  Landscape 
Gardening 

Forestry 

Year 

Units 

Year 

Sea- 
son 

Units 

2 

3 

4 

i 

K 

K  or 
less 

I 

3 

S 

i 

K 

Y*   or 
less 

A.     High  Schools 

2 

2 

2 

2 

i 

i 

3 

Ai.  City  High 
Schools 

A  2.  Town  or 
District  High 
Schools 

2 

2 

2 

2 

As.  County  High 
Schools 

A4.  Approved 
Academies 

2 

i 

i 

I 

AS.  Congressional 
District 

A6.  Junior  High 
Schools 

3 

B.     Agricultural 
Schools 

I 

4 

14 

2 

I 

3 

2 

2 

3 

i 

Bi.  State 

I 

I 

2 

I 

I 

I 

I 

i 

B2.  County 

2 

II 

2 

2 

' 

2 

i 

i 

i 

.Bj.  Philanthropic 

I 

I 

I 

I 

i 

C.     Preparatory 

I 

I 

I 

I 

i 

I 

Extent  of  the  Movement 


TABLE  XXVII. — Showing  distribution  by  year  and  units  of  Carpentry,  and 
Forgework  or  Blacksmithing 


First  year          28         9 
Second  year        9         8 


Third  year          6        3 
Fourth  year        4        2 


Carpentry 

Not 

TV  £*"«,.,, 

Forgework  or  Blacksmithing 

Group 
Designation 

Year 

Units 

JJineren- 
tiated 
Manual 

Year 

Units 

Kor 

ing 

Kor 

i 

2 

3 

4 

iK 

i 

X 

M 

less 

i 

2 

3 

4 

i 

K 

less 

A.     High 

Schools 

21 

5 

3 

3 

3 

6 

9 

5 

S 

8 

3 

2 

2 

i 

4 

4 

Ai.  City 

High 

Schools 

3 

2 

2 

I 

2 

3 

2 

i 

i 

Az.  Town  or 

District 

High 

Schools 

II 

5 

4 

2 

3 

3 

AS.  County 

High 

Schools 

2 

2 

i 

A4.  Approved 

Acade- 

mies 

2 

I 

i 

I 

I 

I 

1 

I 

i 

AS.  Congres- 

sional 

District 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

i 

A  6.  Junior 

High 

Schools 

B.    Agricul- 

tural 

Schools 

7 

4 

3 

1 

i 

2 

i 

3 

I 

5 

I 

i 

3 

2 

Bi.  State 

3 

i 

i 

2 

I 

3 

I 

2 

B2.  County 

3 

2 

I 

I 

i 

I 

I 

2 

I 

i 

2 

Bj.  Philan- 

thropic 

i 

I 

i 

i 

I 

C.     Prepara- 

tory 

1 

1 68   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 
TABLE  XXVIII. — Showing  length  of  periods,  arrangement  of  periods 


Length  of  Periods 
in  Minutes 

Arrangement  of  Periods 

Group 
Designation 

30 

40 

45 

SO 

60 

Single 
Period 

Four 
Single 

Three 
Single 

Double 
Labo- 
ratory 

All 
Triple 

All 
Double 

One 

Two 

Double 

Double 

A.     High 

Schools 

I 

3i 

S 

2 

8 

S 

7 

3 

16 

Ai.  City 

High 

Schools 

4 

3 

I 

2 

2 

4 

A  2.  Town  or 

District 

High 

Schools 

18 

I 

I 

i 

3 

3 

ii 

A3.  County 

High 

Schools 

2 

I 

2 

I 

A  4.  Approved 

Acade- 

mies 

3 

I 

2 

2 

As.  Congres- 

sional 

District 

4 

3 

i 

A6.  Junior 

High 

Schools 

I 

i 

B.     Agricul- 

tural 

Schools 

6 

3 

I 

2 

6 

2 

Bi.  State 

i 

2 

3 

Bz.  County 

4 

3 

i 

Bj.  Philan- 

thropic 

I 

I 

I 

2 

i 

C.  Prepara- 

tory 

I 

I 

Extent  of  the  Movement 


169 


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1 70   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


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M                                                 O>                                      MM 

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„         -         - 

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o 

11 
11 

State  Aid  for 
Agriculture 

1                              I 

"  —     «  c  y  2 

1  1  1  1  1  1  1 

<  c^  w  o  cu  5  cu 

^  i     2         3     ^     ^     ^ 

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1 72    Organization  and  Method  in  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


TAHLE  XXXII. — Showing  adjustment  of  outdoor  work  to  season  and  selection  of 
agricultural  subject  matter  in  regard  to  demands  of  locality 


Season 

Locality 

Group  Dcsign&tion 

None 

Definite 

Marked 

Slight 

Definite 

Marked 

A  .     High  Schools 

4 

28 

7 

ii 

22 

6 

A  i.  City  High  Schools 

3 

4 

I 

3 

3 

2 

A  2.  Town  or  District 

High  Schools 

13 

6 

2 

13 

4 

Aj.    County  High 

Schools 

I 

2 

2 

i 

A  4.  Approved   Acade- 

mies 

4 

4 

A  j.   Congressional 

District 

4 

3 

I 

A6.   Junior  High 

I 

I 

Schools 

State  Aid  for 

Agriculture 

0 

16 

6 

1 

•16 

6 

B.     Agricultural 

Schools 

I 

8 

i 

4 

4 

2 

Bi.  State 

I 

2 

2 

i 

B2.   County 

4 

3 

I 

B3.    Philanthropic 

2 

i 

2 

I 

C.      Preparatory 

I 

i 

EXHIBITS  OF  LESSONS 

LESSON   IN   FARM   MECHANICS 
Gas  Engines 

Eighteen  boys  worked  in  groups  of  three  about  six  gas  engines  of 
different  makes.  Procedure  consisted  in  taking  apart  the  engine 
piece  by  piece,  laying  each  carefully  in  a  place  assigned,  then 
putting  the  engine  together,  starting  and  timing  it.  So  the  groups 
passed  from  engine  to  engine  till  all  had  been  dismounted  and  set 
up  again.  Next  the  engines  were  taken  apart,  the  pieces  pi-led  in 
indiscriminate  heaps,  and  the  round  of  reconstruction  again  accom- 
plished. Finally,  all  engines  were  dismounted  and  the  parts  from 
all  piled  together.  Then  each  group  must  sort  out  and  replace  the 
parts  of  its  particular  engine,  and  set  it  to  running  smoothly  once 
more.  The  completion  of  the  full  routine  occupied  laboratory 
periods  during  several  weeks. 

LABORATORY   EXERCISE   IN   FRUIT   GROWING 

1.  Draw  an  outline  of  a  round,  oblate,  conical,  ovate,  oblong 
apple. 

2.  Draw  an  acuminate  cavity;  an  obtuse  cavity. 

3.  Draw  a  cross  section  of  an  apple  having  core  lines  meet- 
ing. 

4.  Draw    a    cross    section    of    an    apple    having    core    lines 
clasping. 

5.  Draw  a  cone  shaped  calyx  tube. 

6.  Give  definitions  of  the  following: 

Calyx-lobes,   skin-dots,  closed  core,   open   core,    marginal 
stamens. 

NOTE.  Laboratory  exercises  in  fruit  growing  are  more  likely  to 
be  concerned  with  the  identification  of  varieties  or  practice  in  the 
processes  of  graft  propagation,  or  the  preparation  of  spraying 
mixtures,  than  in  work  like  that  above.  Nevertheless,  the  insistence 
here  indicated  upon  the  botanical  structure  of  fruits,  as  well  as  of 
other  parts  of  the  plant  is  not  uncommon.  The  utilitarian  aspect  is 
not  emphasized  in  such  work. 


1 74   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

LABORATORY   LESSON   IN   FARM   CROPS 
High  School 

Every  boy  measured  out  ten  cubic  centimeters  of  oats  from 
each  of  three  samples,  spread  the  samples  upon  clean  paper,  removed 
with  a  knife  blade  dirt,  weed  seeds,  and  chaff,  and  weighed  again, 
to  determine  percentage  of  purity.  During  the  sorting  a  smutty 
grain  was  discovered.  This  the  teacher  placed  under  a  small  micro- 
scope ;  then  summoned  the  boys  to  examine  it.  After  all  had  taken 
a  look  at  the  whole  grain,  he  split  it  with  a  knife,  laid  the  halves 
under  the  microscope,  and  again  called  for  examination. 

Finally  he  dictated  the  following  questions,  to  be  recorded  and 
answered  in  the  notebooks: 

1.  Of  what  value  is  a  purity  test? 

2.  Why  must  a  purity  test  be  made  when  you  have  grain  for 

sale  in  this  state? 

3.  Where  can  you  get  a  purity  test  made? 

4.  Explain  in  full  the  value  of  this  experiment  to  you. 

5.  Compare  the  three  samples  as  to  their  content  of  weed  seeds, 

chaff,  etc.   Which  is  most  valuable  and  why? 

A   LESSON   IN   CORN   JUDGING 

High  School 

To  every  boy  in  the  class  was  given  a  rack  of  ten  ears  of  dent 
corn,  and  a  printed  score  card.  The  boys  spent  the  double  period 
in  scoring  the  individual  ears,  recording  the  score  for  each  by  its 
identification  number.  The  following  day  the  same  racks  were 
given  out,  and  the  boys,  without  the  use  of  the  score  card  or  note- 
book, placed  the  ears  in  order  of  merit  from  right  to  left  of  the 
rack.  When  this  placing  had  been  completed  notebooks  were 
opened,  placing  of  the  previous  day  by  score  listed  and  the  two 
sets  of  placings  compared. 

EXERCISE    IN   THE   DAIRY   LABORATORY   OF   A   COUNTY 
AGRICULTURAL   SCHOOL 

Exercise  2.   Milk  Inspection 

Object:  To  determine  the  amount  of  adulteration  in  a  suspected 
sample  of  milk. 

Method:  There  are  two  kinds  of  milk  provided.  One  of  the 
samples  is  chosen  as  a  control  sample,  and  the  other  has  been 


Exhibits  of  Lessons  1 75 

adulterated  by  the  addition  of  water.  To  find  the  amount  of 
foreign  water  present,  proceed  as  follows:  Make  a  duplicate  fat 
test  of  each  sample.  Take  a  lactometer  reading  of  each  sample 
and  determine  the  S.  N.  F.  present  in  each. 

Then  substitute  into  the  following  formula: — 

S.  N.  F.  of  suspected  sample  x  100 

i  oo  — 

S.  N.  F.  legal  standard 

The  suspected  sample  should  be  easily  recognized;  the  previous 
work  in  dairying  should  tell  you  this. 

NOTE.    S.  N.  F.  stands  for  Solids  not  Fat. 

STUDENT'S  PLAN  FOR  A  BENCH  HOOK 

High  School 

1.  Drawing  of  top  view. 

2.  Drawing  of  end  view. 

3.  Drawing  of  bottom  cross  piece. 

4.  Drawing  of  top  cross  piece. 


Stock 


Tools 

Rule  Plane 

Try  square  Brace  and  bit 

Marking  gauge  Screw  driver 

Saw 

Operations 

1.  Laying  out  8.    Planing  to  length 

2.  Surfacing  one  end  9.    Sawing  to  width 

3.  Planing  one  edge  10.   Planing  to  width 

4.  Squaring  one  end  u.    Making  blocks 

5.  Laying  out  width,  length,  12.    Laying  out  screw  holes 

and  thickness  13.    Boring  screw  holes 

6.  Planing  to  thickness  14.   Assembling 

7.  Sawing  to  length 


1 76   Organization  and  Method  in  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools 


LIST  OF  SHOP  PROJECTS  IN  A  COUNTY  AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOL 


1.  Bread  board 

2.  Bench  hook 

3.  Feeding  trough  for  chicks 

4.  Bench 

5.  Milking  stool 

6.  Window  screen 

7.  Nail  and  staple  box 

8.  Bird  house 

9.  Folding  bench 

10.  Fly  trap 

11.  Chicken  feed  hopper 

12.  Clothes  rack 

13.  Saw  buck 

14.  Saw  horse 

15.  Hive  seat  and  tool  box 

1 6.  Wagon  pack 

17.  Roughage  rack 

1 8.  Lawn  seat 

19.  Fruit  ladder  or  step  ladder 

20.  King  road  drag 

21.  Planter 

22.  Stone  boat 

23.  Land  leveler 

24.  General  purpose  sled 

25.  Swing  farm  gate 

26.  Eveners  and  singletree 

27.  Two  man  weight  carrier 


28.  Ladders 

29.  Fence  and  gate 

30.  Carpenters'  tool  box 

31.  Trapnest 

32.  Wheelbarrow 

33.  Carpenters'  work  bench 

34.  Chicken  brooder  coop  and  run 

35.  Wagon  box 

36.  Ensilage  rack  for  wagon 

37.  Wagon  bed 

38.  Wagon  box  for  wagon  bed 

39.  Wagon  box 

40.  Stock  rack 

41.  Flat  hay  rack 

42.  Grain  bed 

43.  Hay  rack 

44.  The  farm  shop 

45.  Colony  poultry  house 

46.  Portable  hog  house 

47.  Pigeon  house 

48.  Poultry  house 

49.  Silo  form 

50.  Corn  crib 

51.  Implement  shed 

52.  Hog  house 

53.  Barn 


LESSON   IN   BUILDING  A   POULTRY   HOUSE 

The  floor  of  a  forty- foot  house  had  been  laid,  and  the  morning's 
task  was  in  setting  studding,  laying  plates,  and  cutting  rafters. 
Two  boys  were  assigned  to  laying  off  plates  and  studding,  two  to 
laying  off  and  cutting  rafters,  and  other  groups,  which  did  not 
rotate,  to  setting  and  spiking.  The  teacher  stood  aside,  and  did 
not  interfere  in  any  way.  Several  questions  as  to  measurements 
he  referred  to  the  working  drawings,  which  the  class  had  pre- 
pared, and  required  verification  by  second  measurement  of  all 
pencilings  on  the  woodwork.  So  far  did  he  refrain  from  sug- 
gestion or  interference  that  rafter  after  rafter  suffered  from  un- 
skillful sawing,  when  a  bit  of  direction  and  caution  might  have 
been  useful. 

The  work  went  forward  very  busily  and  with  little  conflict  of 
duties  or  delay. 


Exhibits  of  Lessons  177 

A   LESSON   IN   POULTRY 
High  School 

Teacher.  Choose  one  breed  from  each  class  of  poultry  and  discuss 
it  from  the  point  of  view  of  size,  form  and  disposition. 

Pupil  made  an  excellent  summary  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Light  Brahmas,  and  a  second  began  upon  the  Barred  Rocks.  He 
was  interrupted  by  the  obstreperous  conduct  of  a  white  Wyandotte 
cock,  tied  up  in  a  sack.  The  cock, 'rescued  from  the  bag,  was  set 
up  on  the  table,  and  criticized  by  the  class  as  to  form,  color,  and 
head  points.  Then  the  teacher  listed  the  feathers  by  name,  calling 
upon  a  boy  to  identify  each  group  as  it  was  named.  When  all  had 
been  so  identified,  every  boy  was  called  upon  to  show  all  classes  of 
feathers  in  order,  and  to  describe  the  distinctive  features  of  each 
class.  Finally  the  teacher  showed  the  distribution  of  feathers  in 
adjustment  to  muscular  movements  and  protection. 

LESSON   IN   FENCING   A   HEN   YARD 

High  School 

Teacher  and  janitor  spent  the  entire  forenoon  in  setting  posts 
for  an  enclosure  of  ^  acre  of  very  uneven  ground.  In  the  afternoon 
for  the  first  two  periods  the  senior  class  grudgingly  gave  up  the 
time  'for  studying  German  for  tomorrow's  exam'  to  assisting  in 
the  wiring.  To  them  the  teacher  gave  occasional  staccato  orders 
but  no  instruction  whatever.  Two  boys  unrolled  the  wire,  barking 
badly  several  young  fruit  trees  in  the  process,  and  two  were  given 
hammer  and  staples.  All  corners  were  nailed  by  the  janitor  or  the 
teacher.  The  attaching  of  the  stretcher,  a  slow  process,  was  per- 
formed by  the  janitor,  the  setting  of  braces  by  an  interested  neigh- 
bor, and  the  stretching  itself  by  the  janitor,  the  neighbor,  and  one 
boy.  Two  boys  were  ordered  to  stand  on  the  wire  to  lower  it,  while 
the  teacher  drove  the  staples.  The  others  ate  apples  and  threw 
the  cores  at  one  another.  At  the  end  of  the  periods  a  group  of 
second  year  students  opened  another  roll  of  wire,  and  watched  the 
janitor  and  teacher  for  eighty  minutes. 

LESSON   IN   THE   USE   OF  A   MANURE    SPREADER 

Philanthropic  School 

Sixteen  boys  armed  with  manure  forks,  pitch  forks,  shovels,  and 
a  coal  scoop  repaired,  with  the  instructor,  to  a  large  heap  of  horse 
manure,  up  to  which  the  farm  foreman  had  backed  a  spreader.  In 


1 78   Organization  and  Method  in  A griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

two  minutes  the  class  had  filled  the  body ;  whereupon  the  foreman 
drove  off  and  spread  the  load.  With  the  second  load  a  boy  was 
given  the  driver's  seat,  and  instructed  in  the  use  of  the  feed  lever. 
He  then  drove  off,  as  had  the  foreman,  chin  on  shoulder,  in  a  mean- 
dering course  across  the  field.  No  attention  whatever  was  given  to 
the  matter  of  driving  straight  and  turning  properly.  Every  boy 
in  his  turn  assumed  so  great  a  responsibility  for  the  working  of  the 
gears  that  he  could  give  little  heed  to  his  horses.  The  result  was  a 
ragged  and  uneven  distribution  of  manure. 


AN   EXCURSION   IN   FORESTRY 
High  School 

Before  starting,  boys  were  directed  to  fetch  their  notebooks,  for, 
'There  will  be  a  report  called  for,  and  you  must  take  notes."  When 
all  had  gathered,  the  teacher  spoke  as  follows: —  "Be  very  obser- 
vant. Take  notes  of  the  soil  coverings,  undergrowth,  sod,  litter  of 
leaves,  and  see  why  it  is  difficult  for  seeds  to  take  root.  Pay  atten- 
tion to  pine  trees  because  deciduous  trees  are  common  here  and 
evergreens  are  not.  Note  the  bark,  branching,  cones  and  needles. 
Note  differences  of  those  in  pines,  spruces  and  cedars." 

The  excursion  proved  rather  a  wild  frolic,  some  boys  racing 
ahead,  others  dragging  behind,  doing  'stunts'  and  playing.  The 
first  stop  was  on  a  hillside  where  some  cedars  and  arbor  vitae  grew. 
To  the  boys  within  hearing,  the  teacher  pointed  out  the  two  species, 
leaving  details  of  identification  entirely  to  two  or  three  of  the 
faithful,  who  jotted  down  shape  of  needles  in  their  books.  About 
a  mile  further  on  a  clump  of  white  pines  was  found  in  the  midst  of 
birch  and  maple.  Here  the  boys  were  somewhat  interested  in 
noting  the  differences  of  weight  in  dry  limbs  of  pine  and  maple,  in 
the  presence  of  pitch  in  pine  scars  and  in  the  large  cones,  but  no 
mention  was  made  of  soil  covering.  A  little  further  on  some  badly 
infected  chestnut  suckers  were  found.  The  teacher  stopped  to 
point  out  the  appearance  of  chestnut  bark  disease,  but  most  of  the 
boys  were  too  far  away  and  too  busy  throwing  stones  to  note  the 
halt.  The  last  halt  was  made  under  spruces  planted  in  a  farm  yard. 
The  boys  collected  fir  cones  but  secured  no  needles  because  the 
yard  was  carefully  raked  and  the  trees  trimmed  high.  On  arrival 
at  the  school,  the  boys  gathered  about  the  faithful  and  copied  their 
notes. 


Exhibits  of  Lesssons  179 

A    PROBLEM   LESSON 

The  pupils  of  a  special  school  had  planned  a  husking  bee.  To 
the  class  in  Farm  Crops,  quite  appropriately,  the  preparation  for 
the  husking  was  assigned.  At  the  time  of  the  visitor's  arrival,  the 
class  was  on  its  way  to  the  machine  shed  in  which  the  'party'  was 
to  take  place. 

The  next  move  was  to  run  out  wagons  and  machinery.  This 
done,  the  class  gathered  in  one  end  of  the  shed  for  making  of  plans. 
Initiative  remained  with  the  boys  for  the  most  part.  The  first 
question  raised  was  as  to  the  number  who  would  attend  the  husking, 
the  next  as  to  accommodating  the  number  in  the  shed.  The  first 
was  readily  answered,  the  second  called  for  thinking.  Two  boys 
paced  off  the  dimensions  of  floor  space  to  meet  the  first  inquiry, 
then  two  sat  down  back  to  back  while  the  others  estimated  the 
space  they  occupied.  Then  the  problem  became  one  of  arrangement 
of  the  rows  of  corn  in  the  shuck;  should  they  run  in  short  rows 
parallel  with  the  end  of  the  rectangular  shed  or  lengthwise,  with  a 
maze  formation.  Considerable  argument  ensued  before  choice  of 
the  longitudinal  arrangement  prevailed,  as  that  which  provided  the 
greater  elbow  room. 

Next  the  teacher  asked,  ."Now  what  is  the  best  way  to  get  that 
corn  in?"  One  boy  suggested  that,  since  the  distance  to  shocks  in 
the  field  was  short,  all  get  together  after  school  and  bring  it  in  in 
wheelbarrows.  But  to  this  the  majority  demurred  on  the  ground 
that  they  must  be  at  home  for  work  in  the  afternoon.  Everyone 
volunteered  to  pay  his  share  toward  pulling  ears  and  placing  them 
in  the  shed,  and  it  was  voted  to  call  on  boarding  pupils  who  were 
earning  their  way  to  do  the  work.  Then  came  the  question,  How 
shall  they  be  paid?  Some  suggested  payment  by  the  hour,  others 
by  amount  of  work  done.  The  'piece  plan'  prevailed  on  a  vote, 
the  bushel  being  chosen  as  a  unit. 

The  teacher's  second  question  was:  "How  much  are  you  going 
to  pay  a  bushel?"  Various  prices,  from  two  to  ten  cents,  were 
suggested,  nobody  knew  what  a  fair  price  might  be.  "How  can  we 
find  out?"  came  as  the  third  question.  Out  of  this  arose  several 
vague  suggestions,  each  of  which  was  rejected  as  no  better  than 
guess  work,  till  a  boy  put  forth  the  following:  "I  guess  we  fellows 
are  worth  about  ten  cents  an  hour  when  we  work  our  best.  That 
is  what  most  of  us  get  when  we  work  for  pay.  Now,  if  we  all  go 


1 80   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

out  to  the  corn  rows  and  pull  corn  and  lug  it  in  for  half  an  hour,  we 
can  figure  out  what  is  a  fair  price  per  bushel,  by  the  result."  On 
this  plan  class  and  instructor  were  hard  at  work,  when  the  visitor 
left  for  another  class  meeting. 

NOTE.  Against  this  lesson  may  be  advanced  the  criticism  that 
the  knowledge  acquired  was  hardly  worth  the  effort  involved.  In 
favor  of  it,  the  criticism  that  the  method  involved  is  that  of  the 
real  problem.  The  whole  experience  moved  naturally  in  thought 
and  action  to  the  solution  of  no  fictitious  problem.  It  was  in  very 
marked  contrast  with  the  usual  haphazard  or  rule  of  thumb  pro- 
cedure in  outdoor  work. 


MASSACHUSETTS 


Vegetable  Garden    123 

Poultry  95 

Farm  Crops  83 

Orchard  48 

Dairy  Cattle  18 

Swine  10 

Small  Fruit  6 


PROJECTS 

Flowers 

Calves 

Steers 

Sheep 

Bees 

Shrubs 


2 

2 

I 
I 
I 
I 

391 


NEW  YORK   PROJECTS 


Poultry 

Potatoes 

Corn 

Garden 

Apples 


352 

126 

62 

81 

30 


Other  Tree  Fruits     26 


Bush  and  Small 

Fruits 

Dairy  Cattle 
Other  Farm 

Animals 
Miscellaneous 


53 
39 

15 

78 

862 


Means  of  transportation  to  home  projects  from  42  state-aided 
schools  of  New  York,  1915. 

Automobile  20  Livery  6 


Bicycle 
Motorcycle 
Horse  (owned) 


20 

10 

3 

4 


Railroad 
Boat 


Exhibits  of  Lessons  181 

Transportation  expenses. 

No.  receiving:  I        $5.  No.  receiving:  9     $50. 

1  10.  3        75- 

2  15.  4     100. 

3  25.  i      125. 

2          40. 

Board  of  Education  furnishes: 

Automobile  4  Bicycle  I 

Horse  2  Gasoline  3 

Plan  of  visits  to  projects  at  Concord  High  School. 
Summer :  twice  a  week. 
Fall  and  Spring:  as  often  as  possible. 
Winter:  once  a  month. 

Record  of  visits  to  nineteen  home  projects  of  pupils. 

No.  of  Project  No.  of  Visits  No.  of  Project  No.  of  Visits 

1  22  II  25 

2  36  12  31 

3  21  13  17 

4  27  14  25 

5  25  15  26 

6  27  16  20 

7  30  17  23 

8  28  18  27 

9  26  19  33 
10  27 

REPORT  OF  EXTENSION  WORK  OF  TEACHERS  IN  THE 
ALBERT  LEA  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Quoted  from  letter  of  Mr.  W.  E.  Hedgecock,  in  charge 

"The  Extension  Work  has  been  so  interwoven  from  one  year  to 
another  that  it  will  be  rather  difficult  to  separate  last  year  from  the 
previous  years  and  for  that  reason  I  will  give  you  the  work  as  con- 
ducted during  the  past  two  years,  as  Mr.  Hibbs  has  been  with  me 
both  years. 

"The  Extension  Work  was  divided  into  two  main  projects.  The 
introduction  of  alfalfa  into  the  county  and  better  dairy  farming. 


1 82   Organization  and  Method  in  A  griculture  in  Secondary  Schools 

The  alfalfa  acreage  has  been  increased  from  twelve  acres  in  1913 
to  almost  300  acres  in  1915,  and  I  expect  to  hear  that  at  least  600 
acres  were  cut  during  the  spring  and  summer  of  1916.  The  Dairy 
Industry  has  been  promoted  through  the  Pioneer  Cow  Testing 
Association,  which  numbered  700  cows  at  the  completion  of  the 
reorganization  in  June,  1915.  This  Association  included  thirty- 
five  herds  of  cattle. 

"All  the  farmers  with  the  exception  of  a  very  few  have  taken  to 
weighing  their  milk  night  and  morning,  keeping  a  record  of  it  on 
sheets  furnished  by  the  United  States  Department  and  distributed 
by  the  Agricultural  Department  of  the  High  School.  The  men 
with  one  or  two  exceptions  have  erected  silos  within  the  past  few 
years  and  a  large  number  during  the  last  two  years.  They  have 
all  improved  in  the  feeding  of  their  dairy  cows  and  at  the  present 
time  we  have  one  Guernsey  Breeding  Association  a  year  and  one 
half  old. 

"The  remainder  of  our  time  was  devoted  to  various  lines  of  work 
such  as  advice  in  building,  remodeling  a  dairy  barn,  making  plans 
for  machine  sheds,  arranging  for  dairy  meetings  and  organizing  and 
aiding  the  farmers'  clubs  of  the  County.  The  County  at  the  time 
I  left  had  thirteen  farmers'  cluos  holding  meetings  once  a  month. 
We  also  aided  in  conducting  a  one  week  farmers'  short  course 
cooperating  with  the  State  Extension  Division.  We  also  held  each 
year  a  three  months'  short  course  for  farmer  boys  and  girls,  fifteen 
years  of  age  and  over.  This  last  year  we  had  twenty-five  pupils 
enrolled  whose  age  would  average  probably  between  eighteen  and 
nineteen  years. 

"We  also  cooperated  with  the  Farm  Management  Department 
of  the  College  of  Agriculture  in  obtaining  the  consent  of  two  men 
to  keep  records  of  farm  work  and  both  horse  and  man  labor.  We 
also  cooperated  in  promoting  the  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  throughout 
the  County." 


SUMMARY   OF   EXTENSION   WORK   AT   THE   CONCORD,    MASS., 
HIGH    SCHOOL 

From  the  Report  of  Mr.  A .  W.  Doolittle,  in  charge 

Fumigated  six  greenhouses  with  Cyanide  for  White  Fly.  Con- 
ducted two  experiments  on  spraying  cucumbers  in  greenhouses  for 
Red  Spider. 


Exhibits  of  Lessons  1 83 

Conducted  Apple  Packing  School  January  4  to  9.  Gave  practical 
work  in  box,  barrel,  and  fancy  packages.  Enrolment  twelve  adults. 

Supervised  and  arranged  for  Extension  School  by  the  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  College  for  five  days  in  February.  Total  atten- 
dance of  600  men  and  400  women.  Concord  Library  issued  catalogs 
of  Agriculture  and  Domestic  Science  books,  which  were  mailed  and 
distributed  to  farmers  and  housewives. 

Most  of  the  spare  time  for  a  month  was  given  to  promoting  this 
school.  Meetings  were  held,  letters  written,  programs  distributed 
and  personal  work  done.  Mr.  Bevan  visited  sixty-five  farms  to 
urge  attendance.  He  also  took  a  census  of  fifty  farms. 

An  Agricultural  census  of  the  town  was  started  and  nearly  com- 
pleted; a  special  survey  on  asparagus  and  strawberry  growing 
made.  A  total  of  1606  calls  were  made  on  the  telephone. 

Assisted  with  Concord  Grange  Fair  held  in  October.  Helped  in 
advertising  and  distribution  of  premium  lists.  Aided  in  judging. 

Judged  fruit  and  vegetables  at  Framingham  Fair,  September  22, 
and  at  Home  Garden  Exhibit,  Everett,  September  16. 

Took  active  interest  in  local  Home  Garden  Association.  Headed 
committee  on  premium  list  and  exhibits.  Distributed  seed  and 
fertilizers.  Assisted  in  managing  the  two  exhibits,  receiving, 
displays,  judging,  etc.  Three  hundred  boys  and  girls  took  part. 

Acted  as  official  milk  tester  for  the  Board  of  Health  for  which 
apparatus  valued  at  $175.00  has  been  given.  Results  of  tests  are 
published  in  local  papers.  108  samples  have  been  reported  on. 

Gave  four  lectures  on  Agricultural  subjects  in  Concord,  Bedford, 
Sudbury,  and  Dunstable.  Total  attendance  175. 

Aided  in  Clean-up  Week  campaign. 

Made  drawings  to  scale  of  school  plant  in  preparation  for  orna- 
mental planting. 

Gave  public  demonstration  of  milk  testing  for  Board  of  Health. 

Wrote  fifteen  Agricultural  articles  for  local  papers. 


LIST  OF  SCHOOLS  VISITED  FOR  THE  STUDY 

City  High  Schools 

1.  Blue  Island  High  School,  Blue  Island,  Illinois. 

2.  LaSalle-Peru-Oglesby  Township  High  School,  LaSalle,  Illinois. 

3.  Brazil  High  School,  Brazil,  Indiana. 

4.  Hannibal  High  School,  Hannibal,  Missouri. 

5.  Canandaigua  Academy,  Canandaigua,  New  York. 

6.  Austin  High  School,  Austin,  Minnesota. 

7.  Central  High  School,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota. 

8.  South  Saint  Paul  High  School,  South  Saint  Paul,  Minnesota. 

Town  or  District  High  Schools 

1.  Hopkinton  High  School,  Contoocook,  New  Hampshire. 

2.  Brandon  High  School,  Brandon,  Vermont. 

3.  West  Liberty  High  School,  West  Liberty,  Iowa. 

4.  Walworth  High  School,  Walworth,  Wisconsin. 

5.  Concord  High  School,  Concord,  Massachusetts. 

6.  Reading  High  School,  Reading,  Massachusetts. 

7.  Hopkins  Academy,  Hadley,  Massachusetts. 

8.  Union  District  High  School,  Highland,  New  York. 

9.  Milbrook  High  School,  Millbrook,  New  York. 

10.  Pine  Plains  High  School,  Pine  Plains,  New  York. 

1 1 .  Lowville  Academy,  Lowville,  New  York. 

12.  Fultonville  High  School,  Fultonville,  New  York. 

13.  LeRoy  High  School,  LeRoy,  New  York. 

14.  Albion  High  School,  Albion,  New  York. 

15.  Spencerport  Agricultural  School,  Spencerport,  New  York. 

1 6.  Ontelaunee  Vocational  School,  Ontelaunee,  Pennsylvania. 

17.  Palmyra  High  School,  Palmyra,  Pennsylvania. 

1 8.  Associated  State  High  School,  Albert  Lea,  Minnesota. 

19.  Pendleton  High  School,  Pendleton,  Indiana.  - 

County  High  Schools 

1.  Cleburne  County  High  School,  Heflin,  Alabama. 

2.  Etowah  County  High  School,  Attalla,  Alabama. 

3.  Agricultural  High  School,  Sparks,  Maryland. 

Approved  Academies 

1.  Proctor  Academy,  Andover,  New  Hampshire. 

2.  Kimball  Union  Academy,  Meriden,  New  Hampshire. 

3.  Greely  Institute,  Cumberland  Center,  Maine. 

4.  Parsonsfield  Seminary,  Parsonsfield,  Maine. 


List  of  Schools  Visited  for  the  Study  185 

Congressional  District  Schools 

1.  Seventh  District  Agricultural  School,  Albertsville,  Alabama. 

2.  Fifth  District  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  School,  Monroe,  Georgia. 

3.  Sixth  District  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  School,  Barnesville,  Georgia. 

4.  Seventh  District  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  School,  Powder  Springs,  Georgia. 

Junior  High  School 
i.   Junior  High  School,  Jeffersonville,  Vermont. 

State  Agricultural  Schools 

1.  New  York  State  School  of  Agriculture,  Morrisville,  New  York. 

2.  State  School  of  Agriculture,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

3.  Theodore  N.  Vail  Agricultural  School,  Lyndon  Center,  Vermont. 

County  Agricultural  Schools 

1.  Essex  County  Agricultural  School,  Hathorne,  Massachusetts. 

2.  LaCrosse  County  Agricultural  School,  Onalaska,  Wisconsin. 

3.  Racine  County  School  of  Agriculture  and  Domestic  Economy,  Rochester, 

Wisconsin. 

4.  Milwaukee  County  Agricultural  School,  Wauwatosa,  Wisconsin. 

Philanthropic  Agricultural  Schools 

1.  Baron  de  Hirsch  Agricultural  School,  Woodbine,  New  Jersey. 

2.  National  Farm  School,  Doylestown,  Pennsylvania. 

3.  Smith's  Agricultural  and  Industrial  School,  Northampton,  Massachusetts. 

Preparatory  School 
i.    Mount  Hermon  School,  Northfield,  Massachusetts. 


VITA 

THEODORE  HILDRETH  EATON  was  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  May  23, 
1877.  His  schooling  was  received  at  the  Smith  Academy,  St.  Louis, 
and  the  Powder  Point  School,  Duxbury,  Mass. ;  his  college  training 
at  Harvard  College,  A.B.  1900;  his  graduate  work  was  done  at  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  1900-1901,  Cornell  University, 
1912-1913,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1914-1916, 
M.A.  1915. 

In  1901-1906  he  was  a  dairy  farmer  in  Massachusetts,  in  1909- 
1912  a  poultry  farmer  in  New  Hampshire.  In  1906-1909  he  was 
principal  and  instructor  in  agriculture  at  Gilmanton  Academy, 
Gilmanton,  N.  H.;  in  1912-1913  instructor  in  animal  husbandry  at 
the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture;  in  1913-1914,  instruc- 
tor in  agricultural  education  at  the  Central  State  Normal  School 
of  Michigan;  in  1915-1916,  instructor  in  agriculture  and  rural  edu- 
cation at  Columbia  University;  and  since  September,  1916,  he  has 
been  professor  of  agricultural  education  and  secretary  at  the  Con- 
necticut Agricultural  College. 


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